Liliʻuokalani (Hawaiian pronunciation:[liˌliʔuokəˈlɐni]; Lydia Liliʻu Loloku Walania Kamakaʻeha; September 2, 1838 – November 11, 1917) was the onlyqueen regnant and the last sovereign monarch of theHawaiian Kingdom, ruling from January 29, 1891, until theoverthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom on January 17, 1893, in a coup that was led by theCommittee of Safety, composed of seven foreign residents (five Americans, one Scotsman, and one German[1]) and six Hawaiian Kingdom subjects of American descent inHonolulu.[2][3] The composer of "Aloha ʻOe" and numerous other works, she wrote her autobiographyHawaiʻi's Story by Hawaiʻi's Queen (1898) during her imprisonment following the overthrow.
Liliʻuokalani was born in 1838 inHonolulu, on the island ofOʻahu. While her natural parents wereAnalea Keohokālole andCaesar Kapaʻakea, she washānai (informally adopted) at birth byAbner Pākī andLaura Kōnia and raised with their daughterBernice Pauahi Bishop. Baptized as a Christian and educated at theRoyal School, she and her siblings and cousins were proclaimed eligible for the throne by KingKamehameha III. She was married to American-bornJohn Owen Dominis, who later became theGovernor of Oʻahu. The couple had no biological children but adopted several. After the accession of her brotherDavid Kalākaua to the throne in 1874, she and her siblings were given Western-style titles of Prince and Princess. In 1877, after her younger brotherLeleiohoku II's death, she was proclaimed as heir apparent to the throne. During theGolden Jubilee of Queen Victoria, she represented her brother as an official envoy to the United Kingdom.
Liliʻuokalani ascended to the throne on January 29, 1891, nine days after her brother's death. During her reign, she attempted to draft anew constitution which would restore the power of the monarchy and the voting rights of the economically disenfranchised. Threatened by her attempts to abrogate theBayonet Constitution,pro-American elements in Hawaiʻi overthrew the monarchy on January 17, 1893. The overthrow was bolstered by the landing of US Marines underJohn L. Stevens to protect American interests, which rendered the monarchy unable to protect itself.
The coup d'état established aProvisional Government which became theRepublic of Hawaiʻi, but the ultimate goal was the annexation of the islands to the United States, which was temporarily blocked by PresidentGrover Cleveland. After anunsuccessful uprising to restore the monarchy, the oligarchical government placed the former queen under house arrest at theʻIolani Palace. On January 24, 1895, under threat of execution of her imprisoned supporters, Liliʻuokalani was forced to abdicate the Hawaiian throne, officially resigning as head of the deposed monarchy. Attempts were made to restore the monarchy andoppose annexation, but with the outbreak of theSpanish–American War, the United Statesannexed Hawaiʻi. Living out the remainder of her later life as a private citizen, Liliʻuokalanidied at her residence,Washington Place, in Honolulu in 1917.
Liliʻuokalani was born Lydia Liliʻu Loloku Walania Kamakaʻeha[4][note 1] on September 2, 1838, toAnalea Keohokālole andCaesar Kapaʻakea. She was born in the large grass hut of her maternal grandfather,ʻAikanaka, at the base ofPunchbowl Crater inHonolulu on the island ofOʻahu.[6][note 2] According to Hawaiian custom, she was named after an event linked to her birth. At the time she was born,Kuhina Nui (regent)Elizabeth Kīnaʻu had developed an eye infection. She named the child using the words;liliʻu (smarting),loloku (tearful),walania (a burning pain) andkamakaʻeha (sore eyes).[8][4] According to the journals of American missionaryLevi Chamberlain, she was baptized on December 23.[9][10]
Liliʻuokalani in her youth, c. 1853
Her family were of thealiʻi class of the Hawaiian nobility and were collateral relations of the reigningHouse of Kamehameha, sharing common descent from the 18th-centuryaliʻi nui (supreme monarch)Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku. From her biological parents, she descended fromKeaweaheulu andKameʻeiamoku, two of the five royal counselors ofKamehameha I during his conquest of theHawaiian Kingdom. Kameʻeiamoku, the grandfather of both her mother and father, was depicted, along with his royal twin Kamanawa, on the Hawaiian coat of arms.[11] Liliʻuokalani referred to her family line as the "Keawe-a-Heulu line" after her mother's line.[12] The third surviving child of a large family, her biological siblings included:James Kaliokalani,David Kalākaua,Anna Kaʻiulani,Kaʻiminaʻauao,Miriam Likelike andWilliam Pitt Leleiohoku II.[13] She and her siblings werehānai (informally adopted) to other family members. The Hawaiian custom ofhānai is an informal form of adoption between extended families practiced by Hawaiian royals and commoners alike.[14][15] She was given at birth toAbner Pākī and his wifeLaura Kōnia and raised with their daughterBernice Pauahi.[16][17]
In 1842, at the age of four, she began her education at the Chiefs' Children's School (later known as the Royal School). She, along with her classmates, had been formally proclaimed by Kamehameha III as eligible for the throne of the Hawaiian Kingdom.[18] Liliʻuokalani later noted that these "pupils were exclusively persons whose claims to the throne were acknowledged."[19] She, along with her two older brothers James Kaliokalani and David Kalākaua, as well as her thirteen royal cousins, were taught in English by American missionariesAmos Starr Cooke and his wife, Juliette Montague Cooke.[20] The children were taught reading, spelling, penmanship, arithmetic, geometry, algebra, physics, geography, history, bookkeeping, music and English composition by the missionary couple who had to maintain the moral and sexual development of their charges.[21] Liliʻuokalani was placed with the youngest pupils of the class along with PrincessVictoria Kamāmalu,Mary Polly Paʻaʻāina, andJohn William Pitt Kīnaʻu.[22] In later life, Liliʻuokalani would look back unfavorably on her early education remembering being "sent hungry to bed" and the 1848measles epidemic that claimed the life of a classmateMoses Kekūāiwa and her younger sister Kaʻiminaʻauao.[20] The boarding school run by the Cookes was discontinued around 1850, so she, along with her former classmate Victoria, was sent to the relocated day school (also called Royal School) run by Reverend Edward G. Beckwith.[23] On May 5, 1853, she finished third in her final class exams behind Victoria andNancy Sumner.[24] In 1865, after her marriage, she informally attendedOahu College (modern dayPunahou School) and received instruction underSusan Tolman Mills, who later cofoundedMills College in California.[25]
After the boarding school was discontinued in 1850, Liliʻuokalani lived with herhānai parents atHaleʻākala, which she referred to in later life as her childhood home. Around this time, herhānai sister Pauahi married the AmericanCharles Reed Bishop against the wishes of their parents but reconciled with them shortly before Pākī's death in 1855. Kōnia died two years afterward and Liliʻuokalani came under the Bishops' guardianship. During this period, Liliʻuokalani became a part of the young social elite under the reign ofKamehameha IV who ascended to the throne in 1855.[26] In 1856, Kamehameha IV announced his intent to marryEmma Rooke, one of their classmates. However, according to Liliʻuokalani, certain elements of the court argued "there is no other chief equal to you in birth and rank but the adopted daughter of Paki",[27][note 3] which infuriated the King and brought the Queen to tears. Despite this upset, Liliʻuokalani was regarded as a close friend of the new Queen, and she served as a maid of honor during the royal wedding alongside Princess Victoria Kamāmalu andMary Pitman.[29] At official state occasions, she served as an attendant andlady-in-waiting in Queen Emma's retinue. Visiting British dignitariesLady Franklin and her niece Sophia Cracroft noted in 1861 that the "Honble. Lydia Paki" was "the highest unmarried woman in the Kingdom".[30]
Marriage consideration had begun early on for her. American merchant Gorham D. Gilman, a houseguest of the Pākīs, had courted her unsuccessfully when she was fifteen. Around the time of Kōnia's final illness in 1857, Liliʻuokalani was briefly engaged toWilliam Charles Lunalilo. They shared an interest in music composition and had known each other from childhood. He had been betrothed from birth to Princess Victoria, the king's sister, but disagreements with her brothers prevented the marriage from materializing. Thus, Lunalilo proposed to Liliʻuokalani during a trip toLahaina to be with Kōnia. A short-lived dual engagement occurred in which Liliʻuokalani was matched to Lunalilo and her brother Kalakaua to Princess Victoria. She ultimately broke off the engagement because of the urging of King Kamehameha IV and the opposition of the Bishops to the union.[31][note 4] Afterward, she became romantically involved with the American-bornJohn Owen Dominis, a staff member for Prince Lot Kapuāiwa (the future Kamehameha V) and secretary to King Kamehameha IV. Dominis was the son of Captain John Dominis, ofTrieste, andMary Lambert Jones, of Boston. According to Liliʻuokalani's memoir, they had known each other from childhood when he watched the royal children from a school next to the Cookes'. During a court excursion, Dominis escorted her home despite falling from his horse and breaking his leg.[33]
From 1860 to 1862, Liliʻuokalani and Dominis were engaged with the wedding set on her twenty-fourth birthday. This was postponed to September 16, 1862, out of respect for the death of PrinceAlbert Kamehameha, son of Kamehameha IV and Queen Emma. The wedding was held at Haleʻākala, the residence of the Bishops. The ceremony was officiated by ReverendSamuel Chenery Damon in theAnglican rites. Her bridemaids were her former classmatesElizabeth Kekaʻaniau and Martha Swinton. King Kamehameha IV and other members of the royal family were honored guests. The couple moved into the Dominises' residence,Washington Place in Honolulu. Through his wife and connections with the king, Dominis would later become Governor ofOʻahu andMaui.[34] The union was reportedly an unhappy one with much gossip about Dominis' infidelities and domestic strife between Liliʻuokalani and Dominis' mother Mary who disapproved of the marriage of her son with a Hawaiian.[35] They never had any children of their own, but, against the wish of her husband and brother, Liliʻuokalani adopted threehānai children:Lydia Kaʻonohiponiponiokalani Aholo, the daughter of afamily friend;Joseph Kaiponohea ʻAeʻa, the son of a retainer; andJohn ʻAimoku Dominis, her husband's son.[36][note 5]
After her marriage, she retained her position in the court circle of Kamehameha IV and later his brother and successor Kamehameha V. She assisted Queen Emma and King Kamehameha IV in raising funds to buildThe Queen's Hospital. In 1864, she and Pauahi helped Princess Victoria establish theKaʻahumanu Society, a female-led organization aimed at the relief of the elderly and the ill. At the request of Kamehameha V, she composed "He Mele Lāhui Hawaiʻi" in 1866 as the new Hawaiian national anthem. This was in use until replaced by her brother's composition "Hawaiʻi Ponoʻī". During the 1869 visit ofAlfred, Duke of Edinburgh and theGalatea, she entertained the British prince with a traditional Hawaiianluau at herWaikiki residence of Hamohamo.[38][7]
When Kamehameha V died in 1872 with no heir, the1864 Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom called for thelegislature to elect the next monarch. Following a non-binding referendum and subsequent unanimous vote in the legislature,Lunalilo became the firstelected king of Hawaii.[39] Lunalilo died without an heir in 1874. In theelection that followed, Liliʻuokalani's brother, David Kalākaua, ran against Emma, thedowager queen ofKamehameha IV.[40] The choice of Kalākaua by the legislature, and the subsequent announcement, caused ariot at the courthouse. US and British troops were landed, and some of Emma's supporters were arrested. The results of the election strained the relationship between Emma and the Kalākaua family.[41][note 6]
After his accession, Kalākaua gave royal titles and styles to his surviving siblings, his sisters, Princess Lydia Kamakaʻeha Dominis and Princess Miriam Likelike Cleghorn, as well as his brother William Pitt Leleiohoku, whom he named heir to the Hawaiian throne as Kalākaua andQueen Kapiʻolani had no children of their own.[note 7] Leleiohoku died without an heir in 1877.[45] Leleiohoku'shānai (adoptive) mother,Ruth Keʻelikōlani, wanted to be named heir, but the king's cabinet ministers objected as that would place Bernice Pauahi Bishop, Ruth's first cousin, next in line.[46] This would put the Kamehamehas back in succession to the throne again, which Kalākaua did not wish. On top of that, Kalākaua's court genealogists had already cast doubt on Ruth's direct lineage, and in doing so placed doubt on Bernice's.[47] At noon on April 10, Liliʻuokalani became the newly designated heir apparent to the throne of Hawaii.[48] It was at this time that Kalākaua had her name changed toLiliʻuokalani (the "smarting of the royal ones"), replacing her given name of Liliʻu and her baptismal name of Lydia.[49] In 1878, Liliʻuokalani and Dominis sailed to California for her health. They stayed in San Francisco and Sacramento where she visited theCrocker Art Museum.[50][51]
DuringKalākaua's 1881 world tour, Liliʻuokalani served as Regent in his absence.[52] One of her first responsibilities was handling thesmallpox epidemic of 1881 likely brought to the islands by Chinese contracted laborers. After meeting her with her brother's cabinet ministers, she closed all the ports, halted all passenger vessels out of Oʻahu, and initiated a quarantine of the affected. The measures kept the disease contained in Honolulu and Oʻahu with only a few cases on Kauaʻi. The disease mainly affected Native Hawaiians with the total number of cases at 789 with 289 fatalities, or a little over thirty-six percent.[53][54][55]
It was during this regency that Liliʻuokalani visited theKalaupapa Leper Settlement onMolokaʻi in September.[56] She was too overcome to speak and John Makini Kapena, one of her brother's ministers, had to address the people on her behalf. After the visit, in the name of her brother, Liliʻuokalani madeFather Damien a knight commander of theRoyal Order of Kalākaua for his service to her subjects. She also convinced the governmental board of health to set aside land for a leprosy hospital atKakaʻako.[57] She made a second visit to the settlement with Queen Kapiʻolani in 1884.[58]
Liliʻuokalani was active in philanthropy and the welfare of her people. In 1886, she founded a bank for women in Honolulu named Liliuokalani's Savings Bank and helped Isabella Chamberlain Lyman establish Kumukanawai o ka Liliuokalani Hui Hookuonoono, a money lending group for women inHilo. In the same year, she also founded the Liliʻuokalani Educational Society, an organization "to interest the Hawaiian ladies in the proper training of young girls of their own race whose parents would be unable to give them advantages by which they would be prepared for the duties of life." It supported the tuition of Hawaiian girls atKawaiahaʻo Seminary for Girls, where her hānai daughter Lydia Aholo attended, andKamehameha School.[59][60][61]
In April 1887, Kalākaua sent a delegation to attend theGolden Jubilee of Queen Victoria in London. It included his wife Queen Kapiʻolani, the Princess Liliʻuokalani and her husband, as well as Court Chamberlain ColonelCurtis P. Iaukea acting as the official envoy of the King and ColonelJames Harbottle Boyd acting as aide-de-camp to the Queen.[62] The party landed in San Francisco and traveled across the United States visiting Washington, D.C., Boston and New York City, where they boarded a ship for the United Kingdom. While in the American capital, they were received by PresidentGrover Cleveland and his wifeFrances Cleveland.[63] In London, Kapiʻolani and Liliʻuokalani received an official audience with Queen Victoria atBuckingham Palace. Queen Victoria greeted both Hawaiian royals with affection, and recalled Kalākaua's visit in 1881. They attended the special Jubilee service atWestminster Abbey and were seated with other foreign royal guests, and with members of the Royal Household.[64] Shortly after the Jubilee celebrations, they learned of theBayonet Constitution that Kalākaua had been forced to sign under the threat of death. They canceled their tour of Europe and returned to Hawaii.[65]
Liliʻuokalani was approached on December 20 and 23 by James I. Dowsett, Jr. andWilliam R. Castle, members of the legislature'sReform (Missionary) Party, proposing her ascension to the throne if her brother Kalākaua were removed from power. Historian Ralph S. Kuykendall stated that she gave a conditional "if necessary" response; however, Liliʻuokalani's account was that she firmly turned down both men.[66] In 1889, a part Native Hawaiian officerRobert W Wilcox, who resided in Liliʻuokalani's Palama residence, instigated an unsuccessfulrebellion to overthrow the Bayonet Constitution.[67]
Kalākaua arrived in California aboard theUSSCharleston on November 25, 1890. There was uncertainty as to the purpose of the king's trip. Minister of Foreign AffairsJohn Adams Cummins reported that the trip was solely for the king's health and would not extend beyond California, while local newspapers and the British commissioner James Hay Wodehouse speculated that the king might go further east to Washington, D.C., to negotiate a treaty to extend the existing exclusive US access rights to Pearl Harbor, or the annexation of the kingdom. TheMcKinley Tariff Act had crippled the Hawaiian sugar industry by removing the duties on sugar imports from other countries into the US, eliminating the previous Hawaiian duty-free advantage under theReciprocity Treaty of 1875.[68][69] After failing to persuade the king to stay, Liliʻuokalani wrote that he and Hawaiian ambassador to the United StatesHenry A. P. Carter planned to discuss the tariff situation in Washington.[70] In his absence, Liliʻuokalani was left in charge as regent for the second time. In her memoir, she wrote that "Nothing worthy of record transpired during the closing days of 1890, and the opening weeks of 1891."[71]
Upon arriving in California, Kalākaua, whose health had been declining, stayed in a suite at thePalace Hotel in San Francisco.[72][73] Traveling throughout Southern California and Northern Mexico, the monarch suffered a stroke inSanta Barbara[74] and was rushed back to San Francisco. Kalākaua fell into a coma in his suite on January 18, and died two days later on January 20.[72][75] The official cause of death was "Bright's disease with UremicBlood Poisoning."[76] The news of Kalākaua's death did not reach Hawaii until January 29 when theCharleston returned to Honolulu with the remains of the king.[77]
On January 29, 1891, in the presence of the cabinet ministers and the supreme court justices, Liliʻuokalani took the oath of office to uphold the constitution, and became the first and only female monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom.[78][79] The first few weeks of her reign were occupied with the funeral of her brother. After the end of the period of mourning, one of her first acts was to request the formal resignation of the holdover cabinet from her brother's reign. These ministers refused, and asked for a ruling by the Hawaii Supreme Court. All the justices but one ruled in favor of the Queen's decision, and the ministers resigned. Liliʻuokalani appointedSamuel Parker,Hermann A. Widemann, andWilliam A. Whiting, and reappointed Charles N. Spencer (from the hold-over cabinet), as her new cabinet ministers. On March 9, with the approval of the House of Nobles, as required by the Hawaiian constitution, she named as successor her nieceKaʻiulani, the only daughter ofArchibald Scott Cleghorn and her sister Princess Likelike, who had died in 1887.[80][81][82] From April to July, Liliʻuokalani paid the customary visits to the main Hawaiian Islands, including a third visit to theleper settlement at Kalaupapa. HistorianRalph Simpson Kuykendall noted, "Everywhere she was accorded the homage traditionally paid by the Hawaiian people to theiralii."[83][84][85]
Liliʻuokalani atWaipiʻo during her royal circuit of Oʻahu, 1891
Following her accession, John Owen Dominis was given the titlePrince Consort and restored to the Governorship of Oʻahu, which had been abolished following the Bayonet Constitution of 1887.[86][87] Dominis' death on August 27, seven months into her reign, greatly affected the new Queen. Liliʻuokalani later wrote: "His death occurred at a time when his long experience in public life, his amiable qualities, and his universal popularity, would have made him an adviser to me for whom no substitute could possibly be found. I have often said that it pleased the Almighty Ruler of nations to take him away from me at precisely the time when I felt that I most needed his counsel and companionship."[88][89][90] Cleghorn, her sister's widower, was appointed to succeed Dominis as Governor of Oʻahu. In 1892, Liliʻuokalani would also restore the positions of governor for the other three main islands for her friends and supporters.[91][86]
From May 1892 to January 1893, the legislature of the Kingdom convened for an unprecedented 171 days, which later historians such as Albertine Loomis and Helena G. Allen dubbed the "Longest Legislature".[92][93] This session was dominated by political infighting between and within the four parties:National Reform,Reform,National Liberal and Independent; none were able to gain a majority. Debates heard on the floor of the houses concerned the popular demand for a new constitution and the passage of alottery bill and anopium licensing bill, aimed at alleviating the economic crisis caused by the McKinley Tariff. The main issues of contention between the new monarch and the legislators were the retention of her cabinet ministers, since political division prevented Liliʻuokalani from appointing a balanced council and the 1887 constitution gave the legislature the power to vote for the dismissal of her cabinet. Seven resolutions of want of confidence were introduced during this session, and four of her self-appointed cabinets (the Widemann,Macfarlane,Cornwell, andWilcox cabinets) were ousted by votes of the legislature. On January 13, 1893, after the legislature dismissed the George Norton Wilcox cabinet (which had political sympathies to the Reform Party), Liliʻuokalani appointed the new Parker cabinet consisting of Samuel Parker, as minister of foreign affairs;John F. Colburn, as minister of the interior; William H. Cornwell, as minister of finance; andArthur P. Peterson, as attorney general.[94] She chose these men specifically to support her plan of promulgating a new constitution while the legislature was not in session.[95]
The precipitating event[96] leading to the 1893 overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom was the attempt by Queen Liliʻuokalani to promulgate a new constitution to regain powers for the monarchy and Native Hawaiians that had been lost under the Bayonet Constitution. Her opponents, who were led by two Hawaiian citizensLorrin A. Thurston and W. O. Smith and included six Hawaiian citizens, five US citizens and one German citizen,[97] were outraged by her attempt to promulgate a new constitution and moved to depose the Queen, overthrow the monarchy, and seek Hawaii's annexation to the United States.[note 8][99]
Shortly after her accession, Liliʻuokalani began to receive petitions to re-write the Bayonet Constitution[note 9] through the two major political parties of the time,Hui Kālaiʻāina and the National Reform Party.[note 10] Supported by two-thirds of the registered voters,[102] she moved to abrogate the existing 1887 constitution, but her cabinet withheld their support, knowing what her opponents' likely response would be.[note 11]
Theproposed constitution (co-written by the Queen and two legislators,Joseph Nāwahī andWilliam Pūnohu White) would have restored the power to the monarchy, and voting rights to economically disenfranchised native Hawaiians and Asians.[103][104] Her ministers and closest friends were all opposed to this plan; they tried unsuccessfully to dissuade her from pursuing these initiatives, both of which came to be used against her in the brewing constitutional crisis.[105]
TheUSSBoston's landing force on duty at the Arlington Hotel, Honolulu
The political fallout led to citywide political rallies and meetings in Honolulu. Anti-monarchists, annexationists, and leading Reform Party politicians that includedLorrin A. Thurston, a grandson of American missionaries, and Kalākaua's former cabinet ministers under the Bayonet Constitution, formed theCommittee of Safety in protest of the "revolutionary" action of the queen and conspired to depose her.[106] Thurston and the Committee of Safety derived their support primarily from the American and European business class residing in Hawaiʻi. Most of the leaders of the overthrow were American and European citizens who were also Kingdom subjects. They also included legislators, government officers, and a justice of the Hawaiian Supreme Court.[107][108]
In response,royalists and loyalists formed the Committee of Law and Order and met at the palace square on January 16, 1893. Nāwahī, White, Robert W. Wilcox, and other pro-monarchist leaders gave speeches in support for the queen and the government. To try to appease the instigators, the queen and her supporters abandoned attempts to unilaterally promulgate a constitution .[109][106]
The same day, the Marshal of the Kingdom,Charles Burnett Wilson, was tipped off by detectives to the imminent planned coup. Wilson requestedwarrants to arrest the 13-member council of the Committee of Safety, and put the Kingdom undermartial law. Because the members had strong political ties toUnited States Minister to HawaiiJohn L. Stevens, the requests were repeatedly denied by the queen's cabinet, who feared that the arrests would escalate the situation. After a failed negotiation with Thurston,[110] Wilson began to collect his men for the confrontation. Wilson and captain of theRoyal Household GuardSamuel Nowlein had rallied a force of 496 men who were kept at hand to protect the queen.[111]Marines from theUSSBoston and two companies of US sailors landed and took up positions at the US Legation, the Consulate, and Arion Hall. The sailors and Marines did not enter the palace grounds or take over any buildings, and never fired a shot, but their presence served effectively in intimidating royalist defenders. Historian William Russ states, "the injunction to prevent fighting of any kind made it impossible for the monarchy to protect itself".[112]
The queen was deposed on January 17, and theprovisional government established under pro-annexation leaderSanford B. Dole was officially recognized by Stevens as thede facto government.[113][114][115] She temporarily relinquished her throne to the United States, rather than the Dole-led government, in hopes that the United States would restore Hawaii's sovereignty to the rightful holder.[116][117] The government under Dole began using ʻIolani Palace as its executive building.[118][119] A delegation departed for Washington, D.C., on January 19, to ask for immediate annexation by the United States.[120] At the request of the provisional government, Stevens proclaimed Hawaii a protectorate of the United States on February 1, to temporarily provide a buffer against domestic upheaval and interference by foreign governments.[121][122] The US flag was raised over the palace, andmartial law was enforced. The annexation treaty presented to the US Senate contained a provision to grant Liliʻuokalani a $20,000 per annum lifetime pension, and Kaʻiulani a lump-sum payment of $150,000. The queen protested the proposed annexation in a January 19 letter to PresidentBenjamin Harrison. She sent PrinceDavid Kawānanakoa andPaul Neumann to represent her.[123]
Neumann delivered a letter from the queen to Grover Cleveland, who began his second non-consecutive term as president on March 4.[124] The Cleveland administration commissionedJames Henderson Blount to investigate the overthrow. He interviewed those involved in the coup and wrote theBlount Report, and based on its findings, concluded that the overthrow of Liliʻuokalani was illegal, and that Stevens and American military troops had acted inappropriately in support of those who carried out the overthrow. On November 16, Cleveland sent his ministerAlbert S. Willis to propose a return of the throne to Liliʻuokalani if she granted amnesty to everyone responsible. Her first response was that Hawaiian law called for property confiscation and the death penalty for treason, and that only her cabinet ministers could put aside the law in favor of amnesty.[125][126][127] Liliuokalani's extreme position lost her the goodwill of the Cleveland administration.[128]
Cleveland sent the issue to the Congress, stating, "The Provisional Government has not assumed a republican, or other constitutional form, but has remained a mere executive council, or oligarchy, without the consent of the people".[129] The queen changed her position on the issue of amnesty, and on December 18, Willis demanded the provisional government reinstate her to the throne, but was refused. Congress responded with a US Senate investigation that resulted in theMorgan Report on February 26, 1894. It found Stevens and all parties except the queen "not guilty", absolving them of responsibility for the overthrow.[130] The provisional government formed theRepublic of Hawaii on July 4 with Dole as its president, maintaining oligarchical control and a limited system of suffrage.[131]
Liliʻuokalani being escorted up the steps of the palace, where she was imprisoned after the counter-revolution of 1895
At the beginning of January 1895, Robert W. Wilcox and Samuel Nowlein launched arebellion against the forces of the Republic with the aim of restoring the queen and the monarchy. Its ultimate failure led to the arrest of many of the participants and other sympathizers of the monarchy. Liliʻuokalani was also arrested and imprisoned in an upstairs bedroom at the palace on January 16, several days after the failed rebellion, whenfirearms were found at her home of Washington Place after a tip from a prisoner.[132]
During her imprisonment, she abdicated her throne in return for the release (and commutation of the death sentences) of her jailed supporters; six had been sentenced to be hanged including Wilcox and Nowlein.[133] She signed the document of abdication on January 24. In 1898, Liliʻuokalani wrote:
For myself, I would have chosen death rather than to have signed it; but it was represented to me that by my signing this paper all the persons who had been arrested, all my people now in trouble by reason of their love and loyalty towards me, would be immediately released. Think of my position, – sick, a lone woman in prison, scarcely knowing who was my friend, or who listened to my words only to betray me, without legal advice or friendly counsel, and the stream of blood ready to flow unless it was stayed by my pen.
— Queen Liliʻuokalani,Hawaii's Story By Hawaii's Queen[134]
She was tried by the military commission of the Republic led by her former attorney general Whiting in the palace throne room on February 8. Defended at trial by another one of her former attorneys generalPaul Neumann, she claimed ignorance but was sentenced to five years of hard labor in prison by the military tribunal and fined $5,000.[135][136][137] The sentence was commuted on September 4, to imprisonment in the palace, attended by her lady-in-waiting Eveline Townsend Wilson (aka Kitty), wife of Marshal Wilson.[138]
While in confinement she composed songs such as "The Queen's Prayer" (Ke Aloha o Ka Haku – "The Grace of the Lord").[139] She also worked with her companions to create acrazy quilt which would come to be known as the "Queen's Quilt" or "Imprisonment Quilt," featuring words, images, and symbols to represent the history of Hawai'i and hopes for its future.[140][141]
Full view of the Queen's Quilt
On October 13, 1896, the Republic of Hawaii gave her a full pardon and restored her civil rights.[142] "Upon receiving my full release, I felt greatly inclined to go abroad," Liliʻuokalani wrote in her memoir.[143] From December 1896 through January 1897, she stayed inBrookline, Massachusetts, with her husband's cousins William Lee and Sara White Lee, of theLee & Shepard publishing house.[144] During this period her long-time friendJulius A. Palmer Jr. became her secretary and stenographer, helping to write every letter, note, or publication. He was her literary support in the 1897 publication of theKumulipo translation, and helped her in compiling a book of her songs. He assisted her as she wrote her memoirHawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen.[145] Sara Lee edited the book published in 1898 by Lee & Shepard.[146]
Years earlier, suspecting a plot to overthrow the monarchy, Liliʻuokalani had written ,
"as the American residents became wealthy, their greed and their love of power proportionately increased."[147]
At the end of her visit in Massachusetts, Liliʻuokalani began to divide her time between Hawaii and Washington, D.C., where she worked to seekindemnity from the United States.[144]
She attended theinauguration of US PresidentWilliam McKinley on March 4, 1897, with a Republic of Hawaii passport personally issued to "Liliuokalani of Hawaii" by the republic's president Sanford B. Dole.[143] On June 16, McKinley presented the United States Senate with a new version of the annexation treaty, one that eliminated the monetary compensation for Liliʻuokalani and Kaʻiulani.[148] Liliʻuokalani filed an official protest with Secretary of StateJohn Sherman the next day. The protest was witnessed by her agent and private secretaryJoseph Heleluhe, Wekeki Heleluhe, and Captain Julius A. Palmer Jr., reported to be her American secretary.[149]
In June 1897 President McKinley signed the "Treaty for the Annexation for the Hawaiian Islands", but it failed to pass in theUnited States Senate after theKūʻē Petitions were submitted by a commission of Native Hawaiian delegates consisting of James Keauiluna Kaulia, David Kalauokalani, William Auld, and John Richardson. Members ofHui Aloha ʻĀina collected over 21,000 signatures opposing an annexation treaty. Another 17,000 signatures were collected by members of Hui Kālaiʻāina but not submitted to the Senate because those signatures were also asking for restoration of the Queen. The petitions collectively were presented as evidence of the strong grassroots opposition of the Hawaiian community to annexation, and the treaty was defeated in the Senate— however, following its failure, Hawaii was annexed anyway via theNewlands Resolution, ajoint resolution of Congress, in July 1898, shortly after the outbreak of the Spanish–American War.[150][151][152]
The annexation ceremony was held on August 12, 1898, at ʻIolani Palace, now being used as the executive building of the government. President Sanford B. Dole handed over "the sovereignty and public property of the Hawaiian Islands" to United States MinisterHarold M. Sewall. The flag of the Republic of Hawaii was lowered and the flag of the United States was raised in its place.[153] Liliʻuokalani and her family members and retainers boycotted the event and shuttered themselves away at Washington Place. Many Native Hawaiians and royalists followed suit and refused to attend the ceremony.[154][155]
Prior to the 1848 division of land known as theGreat Māhele, during the reign of Kamehameha III, all land in Hawaii was owned by the monarchy. The Great Māhele subdivided the land among the monarchy, the government, and private ownership by tenants living on the land. What was reserved for the monarchy became known as the Crown Lands of Hawaii.[156] When Hawaii was annexed, the Crown Lands were seized by the United States government. The Queen gave George Macfarlane her power of attorney in 1898 as part of her legal defense team in seeking indemnity for the government's seizure of the Crown Lands. She filed a protest with the United States Senate on December 20, 1898, requesting their return and claiming the lands were seized without due process or recompense.[157]
That, the portion of the public domain heretofore known as Crown land is hereby declared to have been, on the twelfth day of August, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight, and prior thereto, the property of the Hawaiian government, and to be free and clear from any trust of or concerning the same, and from all claim of any nature what soever, upon the rents, issues, and profits thereof. It shall be subject to alienation and other uses as may be provided by law.
On April 30, 1900, the US Congress passed theHawaii Organic Act establishing a government for theTerritory of Hawaii.[159] The territorial government took control of the Crown Lands,[159] which became the source of the "Ceded Lands" issue in Hawaii.[160]The San Francisco Call reported on May 31 that Macfarlane had informed them the Queen had exhausted her patience with Congress and intended to file a lawsuit against the government.[161] FormerUnited States Minister to HawaiiEdward M. McCook said he believed that once President McKinley began his second term on March 1, 1901, that the government would negotiate a generous settlement with Liliʻuokalani.[162]
During a 1900 Congressional deadlock, she departed for Honolulu with her Washington, D.C., physician Charles H. English (sometimes referred to as John H. English). Newspapers speculated that the Queen, having been diagnosed with cancer, was going home to die.[163] Historian Helena G. Allen made the case that English intended to gain title to crown lands for himself. According to Allen, the Queen balked at his draft of a settlement letter to SenatorGeorge Frisbie Hoar that he wanted her to copy in her handwriting and sign.[164] The doctor was terminated "without cause" a month after her return and sued her.[165]
The Pacific Commercial Advertiser lamented in 1903, "There is something pathetic in the appearance of Queen Liliuokalani as a waiting claimant before Congress." It detailed her years-long residencies in the nation's capital seeking indemnity, while legislators offered empty promises, but nothing of substance.[166]
In 1909, Liliʻuokalani brought an unsuccessful lawsuit against the United States under the Fifth Amendment seeking the return of the Hawaiian Crown Lands.[159] The US courts invoked an 1864 Kingdom Supreme Court decision over a case involving the Dowager Queen Emma and Kamehameha V, using it against her. In this decision the courts found that the Crown Lands were not necessarily the private possession of the monarch in the strictest sense of the term.[167]
Liliʻuokalani seated on the lanai of Washington Place in 1917
Although Liliʻuokalani was never successful in more than a decade of legal pursuits for recompense from the United States government for seized land, in 1911 she was finally granted a lifetime pension of $1,250 a month by the Territory of Hawaii. Historian Sydney Lehua Iaukea noted that the grant never addressed the question of the legality of the seizure itself, and the figure was greatly reduced from what she had requested for recompense.[168]
In April 1917, Liliʻuokalani raised the American flag at Washington Place in honor of five Hawaiian sailors who had perished in the sinking of theSSAztec byGermanU-boats. Her act was interpreted by many as her symbolic support of the United States.[169] Subsequent historians have disputed the true meaning of her act; Neil Thomas Proto argued that "her gesture that day was intended to reflect the dignity with which she still held the right of her people to choose their own fate long after she was gone".[170]
By the end of that summer, theHonolulu Star-Bulletin reported that she was too frail to hold her birthday reception for the public, an annual tradition dating back to the days of the monarchy.[171] As one of her last public appearances in September, she officially became a member of theAmerican Red Cross.[172] Following several months of deteriorating health that left her without the use of her lower limbs, as well as a diminished mental capacity rendering her incapable of recognizing her own house, her inner circle of friends and caregivers sat vigil for the last two weeks of her life knowing the end was near. In accordance with Hawaiian tradition, the royalkāhili fanned her as she lay in bed. On the morning of November 11, Liliʻuokalani died at the age of seventy-nine at her residence at Washington Place.[173]
Burial Vault of Queen Liliʻuokalani at the Royal Mausoleum of Hawaii
The bells ofSaint Andrew Cathedral andKawaiahaʻo Church announced her death, tolling 79 times to signify her age. In keeping with Hawaiian tradition regarding deceased royalty, her body was not removed from her home until nearly midnight.[174] Her body lay in state at Kawaiahaʻo Church for public viewing, after which she received astate funeral in the throne room ofIolani Palace, on November 18. ComposerCharles E. King led a youth choir in "Aloha ʻOe" as hercatafalque was moved from the palace up Nuuanu Avenue with 1,200-foot ropes pulled by 200 people, for entombment with her family members in the Kalākaua Crypt at theRoyal Mausoleum of Mauna ʻAla. The song was picked up by the procession participants and the crowds of people along the route.[175] Films were taken of the funeral procession and later stored atʻĀinahau, the former residence of her sister and niece. A fire on August 1, 1921, destroyed the home and all its contents, including the footage of the Queen's funeral.[176]
Educated by American Protestant missionaries from a young age, Liliʻuokalani became a devout Christian and adherent to the principles of Christianity. These missionaries were largely ofCongregationalist andPresbyterian extractions, subscribing toCalvinist theology, and Liliʻuokalani considered herself a "regular attendant on the Presbyterian worship".[177] She was the first member of the royal family to consistently and regularly attend service at Kawaiahaʻo Church since King Kamehameha IV converted toAnglicanism. On Sundays, she played the organ and led the choir at Kawaiahaʻo. She also regularly attended service atKaumakapili Church and held a special interest in theLiliʻuokalani Protestant Church, to which she donated the Queen Liliʻuokalani Clock in 1892.[178]
Historian Helena G. Allen noted that Liliʻuokalani and Kalākaua "believed all religions had their 'rights' and were entitled to equal treatment and opportunities". Throughout her life, Liliʻuokalani showed a broad interest in the different religious faiths includingCatholicism,Mormonism,Episcopalianism and otherProtestant denominations.[179] In 1896, she became a regular member of the Hawaiian Congregation atSt. Andrew's Cathedral associated with the Reformed Catholic (Anglican/Episcopal) Church of Hawaii, which King Kamehameha IV and Queen Emma had founded.[180] During the overthrow and her imprisonment, BishopAlfred Willis of St. Andrew's Cathedral had openly supported the Queen while ReverendHenry Hodges Parker of Kawaiahaʻo had supported her opponents.[181] Bishop Willis visited and wrote to her during her imprisonment and sent her a copy of theBook of Common Prayer.[182] Shortly after her release on parole, the former queen was baptized and confirmed by Bishop Willis on May 18, 1896, in a private ceremony in the presence of the sisters of St. Andrew's Priory.[183] In her memoir, Liliʻuokalani stated:
That first night of my imprisonment was the longest night I have ever passed in my life; it seemed as though the dawn of day would never come. I found in my bag a small Book of Common Prayer according to the ritual of the Episcopal Church. It was a great comfort to me, and before retiring to rest Mrs. Clark and I spent a few minutes in the devotions appropriate to the evening. Here, perhaps, I may say, that although I had been a regular attendant on the Presbyterian worship since my childhood, a constant contributor to all the missionary societies, and had helped to build their churches and ornament the walls, giving my time and my musical ability freely to make their meetings attractive to my people, yet none of these pious church members or clergymen remembered me in my prison. To this (Christian ?) conduct I contrast that of the Anglican bishop, Rt. Rev. Alfred Willis, who visited me from time to time in my house, and in whose church I have since been confirmed as a communicant. But he was not allowed to see me at the palace.[184]
She traveled to Utah in 1901 for a visit withMormon presidentJoseph F. Smith, a former missionary to the Hawaiian Island. There she joined in services at theSalt Lake Tabernacle, and was feted at aBeehive House reception, attended by manyexpatriate Native Hawaiians.[185] In 1906, Mormon newspapers reported she had been baptized intothe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints by Elder Abraham Kaleimahoe Fernandez.[186] However, many historians doubt this claim, since the Queen herself never announced it.[citation needed] In fact, Liliʻuokalani continued to refer to herself as an Episcopalian in secular newspapers published the same week of her supposed Mormon baptism.[187] The Queen's interest in Mormonism later waned.[188]
The Queen was also remembered for her support ofBuddhist andShinto priests in Hawaii and became one of the first Native Hawaiians to attend aBuddha's Birthday celebration of May 19, 1901, at theHonwangji mission. Her attendance in the celebration helped Buddhism and Shinto gain acceptance into Hawaiian society and prevented the possible banning of the two religions by the Territorial government. Her presence was also widely reported in Chinese and Japanese newspapers throughout the world, and earned her the respect of many Japanese people both in Hawaii and in Japan itself.[189]
Liliʻuokalani was an accomplished author and songwriter. Her bookHawaiʻi's Story by Hawaiʻi's Queen gave her view of the history of her country and her overthrow. She is said to have played guitar, piano,organ,ʻukulele andzither, and also sang alto, performing Hawaiian and English sacred and secular music.[190][191] In her memoirs she wrote:
To compose was as natural to me as to breathe; and this gift of nature, never having been suffered to fall into disuse, remains a source of the greatest consolation to this day.[…] Hours of which it is not yet in place to speak, which I might have found long and lonely, passed quickly and cheerfully by, occupied and soothed by the expression of my thoughts in music.[192]
Liliʻuokalani helped preserve key elements of Hawaiʻi's traditional poetics while mixing in Western harmonies brought by the missionaries. A compilation of her works, titledThe Queen's Songbook, was published in 1999 by the QueenLiliʻuokalani Trust.[190][193] Liliʻuokalani used her musical compositions as a way to express her feelings for her people, her country, and what was happening in the political realm in Hawaiʻi.[194] One example of the way her music reflected her political views is her translation of theKumulipo, the Hawaiian creation chant passed down orally by her great grandmotherAlapaiwahine. While under house arrest, Liliʻuokalani feared she would never leave the palace alive, so she translated the Kumulipo in hopes that the history and culture of her people would never be lost.[195] The ancient chants record her family's genealogy back to the origin of Hawaiʻi.[196]
After Liliʻuokalani was imprisoned in the ʻIolani Palace, she was denied literature and newspapers, essentially cutting her off from her people, but she continued to compose music with paper and pencil while she was in confinement.[197]Another of her compositions was "Aloha ʻOe", a song she had written previously and transcribed during her confinement. In her writings, she says, "At first I had no instrument, and had to transcribe the notes by voice alone; but I found, notwithstanding disadvantages, great consolation in composing, and transcribed a number of songs. Three found their way from my prison to the city of Chicago, where they were printed, among them the 'Aloha ʻOe' or 'Farewell to Thee', which became a very popular song."[197] Originally written as a lover's good-bye, the song came to be regarded as a symbol of, and lament for, the loss of her country. Today, it is one of the most recognizable Hawaiian songs.[194][198][199]
Captain Julius A. Palmer Jr. of Massachusetts was her friend for three decades, and became her spokesperson when she was in residence at Boston and Washington, D.C., protesting the annexation of Hawaiʻi. In the nation's capital, he estimated that she had 5,000 visitors. When asked by an interviewer, "What are her most distinctive personal graces?", Palmer replied, "Above everything else she displayed a disposition of the most Christian forgiveness."[200] In covering her death and funeral, the mainstream newspapers in Hawaii that had supported the overthrow and annexation recognized that she had been held in great esteem around the world.[201] In March 2016,Hawaiʻi Magazine listed Liliʻuokalani as one of the most influential women in Hawaiian history.[198]
After the death of Lili'uokalani, someNative Hawaiians, considering her as an embodiment of a Hawaiianali'i consoled themselves, "There will always be a Hawaii as long as there isaloha and forgiveness."[202]
The Queen Liliʻuokalani Trust was established on December 2, 1909, for the care of orphaned and destitute children in Hawaii. Effective upon her death, the proceeds of her estate, with the exception of twelve individual inheritances specified therein, were to be used for the Trust.[203] The largest of these hereditary estates were willed to herhānai sons and their heirs: John ʻAimoku Dominis would receive Washington Place while Joseph Kaiponohea ʻAeʻa would receive Kealohilani, her residence at Waikiki. Both men predeceased the Queen.[204][205] Before and after her death, lawsuits were filed to overturn her will establishing the Trust. One notable litigant was PrinceJonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole, the nephew of her brother Kalākaua and his wife Kapiʻolani and Liliʻuokalani's second cousin,[note 12] who brought a suit against the Trust on November 30, 1915, questioning the Queen's competency in executing the will and attempting to break the Trust. These lawsuits were resolved in 1923 and the will went into probate.[208][209] The Queen Liliʻuokalani Children's Center was created by the Trust.[210][211]
Liliʻuokalani and her siblings are recognized by theHawaiian Music Hall of Fame asNa Lani ʻEhā (The Heavenly Four) for their patronage and enrichment of Hawaii's musical culture and history.[212][213] In 2007,Honolulu magazine rated "Aloha ʻOe" as the greatest song in the history of Hawaiian music.[199] Songwriter Charles E. King, known as the composer of "Ke Kali Nei Au", was tutored in music by her.[214] EntertainerBina Mossman led the Bina Mossman Glee Club that rehearsed regularly at Washington Place, while Liliʻuokalani helped them with pronunciation of the Hawaiian language. At the queen's funeral, theglee club was part of thekāhili bearers who stood watch over the coffin for two hours at a time, waving the kāhilis and singing Liliʻuokalani's compositions.[215][216]
The annual Queen Liliʻuokalani Outrigger Canoe Race, which follows an 18-mile course from Kailua Bay to Honaunau Bay, was organized in 1972 as an endurance training course for men, in preparation for the traditional Molokaʻi to Oʻahu canoe races. Women canoe teams were added in 1974. The race is held overLabor Day Weekend each year to coincide with Liliʻuokalani's birthday on September 2.[217]
Numerous hula events are held to honor her memory, including the Queen Liliʻuokalani Keiki Hula Competition Honolulu, organized in 1976.[218] The County of Hawaii holds an annual He Hali'a Aloha no Lili'uokalani Festival, Queen's Birthday Celebration atLiliʻuokalani Park and Gardens in Hilo, in partnership with the Queen Lili'uokalani Trust. The event begins with several hundred dancers showered by 50,000 orchid blossoms.[219]
In the 2001 naming of the "Queen Liliʻuokalani Center for Student Services", on theUniversity of Hawaii at Manoa campus, the Board of Regents noted, "As the last Hawaiian monarch, Queen Liliʻuokalani symbolizes an important link to traditional Hawaiian culture and society. Her influence is well understood, widely respected and has been a strong motivating factor in the widespread emergence of Hawaiian culture and the values embodied in it."[220]
In 2017, Edgy Lee researched and filmedLiliuokalani – Reflections of Our Queen, a documentary looking at the legacy of the queen in Hawaii. A showing at Washington Place fundraised for the museum.[61] Liliʻuokalani and the overthrow have been subject of documentaries includingThe American Experience: Hawaii's Last Queen (1994) andConquest of Hawaii (2003).[221][222][223]
In October 2022, a Royal Standard of Queen Liliuʻokalani was listed for auction by a private collector atBonhams New York, along with other artifacts associated with Hawaiʻi's history.[224] The flag, which was flown over Washington Place at the time of the overthrow, had been seized by Colonel John Harris Soper, commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the Provisional Government.[225][226] On October 13, 2022, theHawaiʻi State Department of the Attorney General transmitted a "Notice of Claim" letter to Bonhams, threatening legal proceedings to recover the Royal Standard and certain other items in the auction, which the letter asserted were property of the State of Hawaii.[227] Following receipt of the letter, Bonhams removed the items from the auction.[228] In March 2023, it was reported that the Royal Standard and certain other artifacts from the auction were purchased by the State of Hawaiʻi using funds donated by the estate ofPrincess Abigail Kinoiki Kekaulike Kawānanakoa and Brendan Damon Ethington.[229] Upon the flag's return to Washington Place in July 2023, Dr. Adam Jansen, state archivist, noted that the flag was in poor condition, with tears and multiple holes, and said he was looking for fabric specialists to restore and preserve it.[230]
Key- (k)= Kane (male/husband) (w)= wahine (female/wife) Subjects with bold titles, lavender highlighted, bold box= Direct bloodline Bold title, bold, grey box= Aunts, uncles, cousins line Bold title, bold white box= European or American (raised to aliʻi status by marriage or monarch's decree) Regular name and box=makaʻāinana or untitled foreign subject
^abcdefghijklmnopGenealogy of Liliuokalani, page 400, appendix B, No. 2Queen of Hawaii, Liliuokalani (1898).Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen. University of Hawaii Press. p. 400. RetrievedSeptember 29, 2016.Kapaakea genealogy.
^Other source gives her the additional name of "Wewehi" which has no translation in relation to her birth.[5]
^The area was traditionally referred to as Mana, Manamana, Honolulu and later became the site ofThe Queen's Hospital.[7]
^According to American Commissioner to Hawaii,David L. Gregg, "Pakea [sic] was more unequivocal in his condemnation of the match. He expressed his opinion that his daughter Lydia Paki was more eligible, but declared that if neither the King nor any high chief thought proper to marry her, he would have her married to some good white man, which after all might be much more for her good."[28]
^Historian Helena G. Allen noted that this "would undoubtedly been a disasterous [sic] marriage".[32]
^John Dominis ʻAimoku formally changed his surname to Dominis in 1910.[37]
^HistorianGeorge Kanahele noted that the rift was largely between Liliʻuokalani and Emma since her brother actively sought reconciliation with the dowager queen. During the coronation of Kalākaua, Queen Emma was given greater precedence over Liliʻuokalani and her husband, an action that infuriated Liliʻuokalani.[42]
^Allen noted, "According toThrum's Annual, two new princesses were designated: 'Princess Likelike and Princess Kamakaeha Dominis.' There is no evidence of an official act on the part of Kalakaua [at this time]."[43] On February 10, 1883, Kalākaua officially created her a Princess of the Kingdom by Letters Patent along with other members of his family who been using their courtesy titles for the years between 1873 and 1883.[44]
^"W.D. Alexander (History of Later Years of the Hawaiian Monarchy and the Revolution of 1893,Alexander 1896, p. 37) gives the following as the wording of Thurston's motion [to launch the coup]: 'That preliminary steps be taken at once to form and declare a Provisional Government with a view to annexation to the United States.' Thurston later wrote that his motion was 'substantially as follows: "I move that it is the sense of this meeting that the solution of the present situation is annexation to the United States."'(Memoirs, p. 250) Lt. Lucien Young (The Boston at Hawaii, p. 175) gives the following version of the motion: 'Resolved, That it is the sense of this committee that in view of the present unsatisfactory state of affairs, the proper course to pursue is to abolish the monarchy and apply for annexation to the United States.'"[98]
^TheBayonet Constitution was named because it had been signed by the previous monarch under threat of violence from a militia composed of armed American and Europeans calling themselves the "Honolulu Rifles".[100]
^"She ... defended her act[ions] by showing that, out of a possible 9,500 native voters in 1892, 6,500 asked for a new Constitution."[101]
^The Queen's new cabinet "had been in office less than a week, and whatever they thought about the need for a new constitution ... they knew enough about the temper of the queen's opponents to realize that they would endure the chance to challenge her, and no minister of the crown could look forward ... to that confrontation".[103]
^Although Liliʻuokalani referred to Kūhiō as her second cousin, Kūhiō was actually her first cousin once removed.[206][207]
^Information on Liliʻuokalani's titles and styles from 1874 to 1893 is from the yearly editions of theHawaiian Almanac and Annual, all edited byThomas G. Thrum and published by theHonolulu Star-Bulletin. Abbreviated citations are provided to indicate the specific editions used.
^She was referred to as Crown Princess of Hawaii while in England, although this was never one of her official titles.[236]
^Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the Congress. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1894.WHO WERE THE PARTIES THAT ASKED FOR AMERICAN AID. Six of them were Hawaiians, one English, and one German; five were Americans, but residents of Honolulu; a majority alien to us.
^abAllen 1982, pp. 84–89, 98–99, 103–104;Kanahele 2002, p. 97;"Notes of the Week".The Pacific Commercial Advertiser. Vol. VII, no. 12. Honolulu. September 18, 1862. Image 2, col. 5.Archived from the original on November 8, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.;"Marela".Ka Nupepa Kuokoa. Vol. I, no. 43. Honolulu. September 20, 1862. p. 3. Archived fromthe original on May 7, 2021. RetrievedSeptember 26, 2016.;"Na Mea Mare".Ka Hoku o ka Pakipika. Vol. II, no. 52. Honolulu. September 18, 1862. p. 2. Archived fromthe original on May 5, 2021. RetrievedSeptember 26, 2016.
^abHawe, Jeff (August 7, 2018)."Ahead of Her Time".Hawaii Business Magazine. Honolulu.Archived from the original on January 3, 2019. RetrievedJanuary 2, 2019.
^"By Authority".The Daily Bulletin. Vol. XV, no. 25. Honolulu. January 30, 1891. Image 2, col. 1.Archived from the original on October 3, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.
^"By Authority".The Daily Bulletin. Vol. XV, no. 51. Honolulu. March 2, 1891. Image 2, col. 1.Archived from the original on November 8, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.
^"Queen Arrested".The Daily Bulletin. Vol. IX, no. 1238. Honolulu. January 16, 1895. Image 3. col. 1.Archived from the original on October 2, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.;"She Plotted".The Hawaiian Star. Vol. III, no. 557. Honolulu. January 17, 1895. p. 3, col. 2.Archived from the original on October 2, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.
^Allen 1982, pp. 123, 147, 187, 344–345, 347;"Declines to Confess".The Daily Bulletin. Vol. IX, no. 1256. Honolulu. February 6, 1895. p. 5, col. 2.Archived from the original on February 28, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.;"Five Years in Parlor".The Daily Bulletin. Vol. IX, no. 1274. Honolulu. February 27, 1895. p. 5, col. 2.Archived from the original on February 28, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.
^"Treaty to Annex Hawaii".The Times. No. 1185. Washington, D.C. June 17, 1897. Image 1, col. 3.Archived from the original on November 8, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.;"Treaty to Annex Hawaii".The Times. No. 1185. Washington, D.C. June 17, 1897. Image 2, col. 4.Archived from the original on November 8, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.
^"Claims of Ex-Queen".The Pacific Commercial Advertiser. Vol. XXXII, no. 5589. Honolulu. July 5, 1903. p. 10, col. 2.Archived from the original on November 8, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.
^"Court Notes".The Independent. Vol. XI, no. 1586. Honolulu. August 16, 1900. p. 4.Archived from the original on October 8, 2016. RetrievedOctober 2, 2016.;"Dr. English's Suit Against Liliuokalani".The Honolulu Republican. Vol. I, no. 71. Honolulu. September 5, 1900. Image 8, col. 3.Archived from the original on November 9, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.
^"Liliuokalani's Claim".The Pacific Commercial Advertiser. Vol. XXXVII, no. 6399. Honolulu. February 10, 1903. Image 4, col. 1.Archived from the original on November 25, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.
^Abbott, Lyman; Mabie, H. W., eds. (May 30, 1917)."An American Queen".The Outlook. Vol. 116, no. 5. New York. pp. 177–178.OCLC5361126.Archived from the original on April 23, 2017.;"Elima Keiki Hawaii i Make".Ke Aloha Aina. Vol. XXII, no. 14. Honolulu. April 6, 1917. p. 1. Archived fromthe original on May 6, 2021. RetrievedSeptember 26, 2016.
^"Queen Not to Hold Reception".Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Honolulu. August 29, 1917. p. 10, col. 5.Archived from the original on November 9, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.;"The Queen's Birthday".The Daily Bulletin. Honolulu. September 3, 1892. Image 3, col. 2.Archived from the original on November 19, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.
^Allen 1982, p. 399;Gessler, Clifford F. (October 1921)."Honolulu Letter".The Step Ladder. Vol. III, no. 5. Chicago. pp. 76–77.Archived from the original on April 23, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.;"ON THE OTHER ISLANDS: Ainahau Burns".The Maui News. Wailuku. August 5, 1921. p. 8, col. 4.Archived from the original on May 28, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.
^"Queen at Salt Lake".The Pacific Commercial Advertiser. Vol. XXXIV, no. 6037. Honolulu. December 11, 1900. Image 9, col. 1.Archived from the original on October 10, 2017. RetrievedOctober 15, 2017.
^Boylan, Daniel (2001). "Documentary Reviews of O Hawaiʻi: of Hawaiʻi from Settlement to Kingdom; Nation Within: the Story of America's Annexation of the Nation of Hawaiʻi; Hawaiʻi's Last Queen; 1946: the Great Hawaii Sugar Strike; the Great Hawaii Dock Strike; the 442nd: Duty, Honor, and Loyalty".Hawaiian Journal of History.35. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society: 45.hdl:10524/540.
Bonura, Sandra; Witmer, Sally (2013). "Lydia K. Aholo – Her Story Recovering the Lost Voice".The Hawaiian Journal of History.47. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society:103–145.hdl:10524/36266.OCLC60626541.
Borch, Fred L. (August 2014). "Lore of the Corps: The Trial by Military Commission of Queen Liliuokalani".The Army Lawyer. Charlottesville, VA: Judge Advocate General's School:1–3.
Liliuokalani (1886). "Report of Her Majesty Queen Kapiolani's visit to Molokai, by H.R.H. Princess Liliuokalani, July 1884".Report of the Board of Health. Honolulu: Hawaiian Gazette Company. pp. iii–xvii.OCLC39817109.Archived from the original on April 23, 2017. RetrievedNovember 11, 2016.
Loomis, Albertine (1963). "The Longest Legislature".Seventy-First Annual Report of the Hawaiian Historical Society for the Year 1962.71. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society:7–27.hdl:10524/35.
Mehmed, Ali (1998). "Hoʻohuiʻaina Pala Ka Maiʻa: Remembering Annexation One Hundred Years Ago".The Hawaiian Journal of History.32. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society:141–154.hdl:10524/358.OCLC60626541.
Nieper Mossman, Bina (1979). "Transcript of interview conducted Sept. 29, 1971 in Hawaii" (Interview). Interviewed by Allen, Katherine B. Honolulu: Watumull Foundation Oral History Project.hdl:10524/48627.
Smith, Emerson C. (1956). "The History of Musical Development in Hawaii".Sixty-Fourth Annual Report of the Hawaiian Historical Society for the Year 1955.64. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society:5–13.hdl:10524/59.
Thrum, Thomas G., ed. (1882)."Retrospect of the Year 1881"(PDF).Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1882. Honolulu: Honolulu Star-Bulletin. pp. 64–67.hdl:10524/23169.OCLC7873859.Archived(PDF) from the original on October 14, 2019. RetrievedOctober 14, 2019.
Thrum, Thomas G., ed. (1892)."Retrospect of the Year 1891".Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1892. Honolulu: Honolulu Star-Bulletin. pp. 124–133.hdl:10524/662.OCLC7873859.Archived from the original on April 23, 2017. RetrievedOctober 28, 2016.
Hawaii Legislature (1892).Laws of Her Majesty Liliuokalani, Queen of the Hawaiian Islands: Passed by the Legislative Assembly at Its Session, 1892. Honolulu: Robert Grieve.OCLC156231006.
Williams, Riánna M. (2015).Queen Liliʻuokalani, the Dominis Family, and Washington Place, their home. Honolulu: Ka Mea Kakau Press.ISBN978-0-692-37922-6.OCLC927784027.
.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)
.svg)
