 | This articlemay need to be cleaned up. It has been merged fromSemi-metro. |
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Light rail (orlight rail transit, abbreviated toLRT) is a form of passengerurban rail transit that usesrolling stock derived fromtram technology[1][2] while also having some features from heavyrapid transit.
The term was coined in 1972 in the United States as an English equivalent for the German wordStadtbahn, meaning "city railroad".[3][4] Different definitions exist in some countries, but in the United States, light rail operates primarily along exclusiverights-of-way and uses either individual tramcars ormultiple units coupled together, with a lower capacity and speed than a longheavy rail passenger train or rapid transit system.[5][6][7][8][9]
Narrowly defined, light rail transit usesrolling stock that is similar to that of a traditional tram, while operating at a higher capacity and speed, often on an exclusive right-of-way. In broader usage, light rail transit can include tram-like operations mostly on streets.[10] Some light rail networks have characteristics closer to rapid transit. Only when these systems are fully grade-separated, they are referred to aslight metros or light rail rapid transit (LRRT).[11]
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The termlight rail was introduced in 1972 by the U.S. Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA, predecessor to theFederal Transit Administration) to describe modernized streetcar systems in Europe and the United States.
In Germany, the concept was known asStadtbahn ("city rail"), but UMTA adopted the termlight rail instead. The wordlight refers to lighter infrastructure and capacity requirements compared with heavy rail, rather than to physical weight. Mode classification is usually based on the type of right-of-way.[12][13]
TheAmerican Public Transportation Association (APTA) defines light rail as:
...a mode of transit service (also called streetcar, tramway, or trolley) operating single cars or short trains on fixed rails, often partly separated from traffic. Vehicles are typically electric, powered from overhead lines via trolley pole or pantograph, operated by an onboard driver, and may feature either high-platform or low-floor boarding.[5]
In international usage,light rail generally denotes newer tram or streetcar systems, ranging from street-running lines to partly grade-separated networks.[14]People movers are typically lower in capacity, whilemonorail andautomated guideway transit are separate technologies with more specialized applications.[15]Light rail is distinct from theBritish English termlight railway, which refers to lightly regulated, low-speed mainline railways.[16]
The termlight rail helps avoid regional differences in terminology. In the UK, Australia,[17] Ireland[18] and New Zealand[19]tram refers to a street-running rail vehicle, while in North America it can also mean an aerial tramway or, in amusement parks, aland train.[20][21] Similarly,trolley meansstreetcar in North America.[22]
In North America,streetcar commonly refers to older vehicles operating in mixed traffic, whilelight rail is used for newer systems that operate mostly on reserved track.[23] The American termstreet railway (with vehicles calledstreetcars) emerged in the 19th century, influenced by the German wordStraßenbahn ("street railway").[24] While Britain abandoned most tramways after World War II, several North American cities—includingToronto,Boston,Philadelphia,San Francisco,Pittsburgh,Newark,Cleveland, andNew Orleans—retained theirs.[25] These cities later adopted the termlight rail when introducing modern systems alongside older streetcars. Since the 1980s,Portland, Oregon has developed all three types: light rail, streetcar, andaerial tram.
Heavy rail refers to higher-capacity, higher-speed systems such as theLondon Underground orNew York City Subway. Conventional passenger and freight railways are also classified as heavy rail. The main distinction is that light rail vehicles can, where necessary, operate in mixed street traffic.[26]
By the late 19th century, some cities began placingtramways underground to reduce congestion. Early examples include theMurray Hill Tunnel in New York, adapted for streetcars in 1870,[27] Marseille's Noailles station in 1893,[28] and Boston'sTremont Street subway in 1897, the first purpose-built tram subway in North America and a precursor to today'sMBTA Green Line.[29][30] London'sKingsway tramway subway opened in 1906 to connect tram networks and operated until 1952.[31]
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The "Shaker Heights Rapid Transit" inCleveland (1920s) provided an early model of a suburban rail line upgraded for tram-like operation and is now part of theRTA Rapid Transit.[32] In Europe, a suburban railway inThe Hague was converted to tram operation in 1927, while in Boston theHighland branch was converted in 1959 to create what became theGreen Line D branch, boosting ridership with modern PCC cars.[33][34][35]: 8 In 1964 Chicago's experimentalSkokie Swift demonstrated features later adopted by many U.S. light rail systems.[36] Many traditional tram andstreetcar systems in theUnited Kingdom,United States, and elsewhere were closed after the 1950s as investment shifted to cars and buses. Leeds and Glasgow briefly built modernized tram lines during the 1940s,[37] but by 1962 Britain had abandoned all tramways except forBlackpool.[38]
Many traditional tram andstreetcar systems in theUnited Kingdom,United States, and elsewhere were closed after the 1950s as investment shifted to cars and buses. Leeds and Glasgow briefly built modernized tram lines during the 1940s,[37] but by 1962 Britain had abandoned all tramways except forBlackpool.[38] Modern light rail developed largely in postwarWest Germany, where many tram networks were upgraded rather than abandoned. TheseStadtbahn systems introduced features such as high-capacity vehicles, dedicated alignments, and underground city-center tunnels. With the exception ofHamburg, nearly all large and most medium-sized German cities retained trams and modernized them into light rail.[39] Similar modernization took place in Zurich, Rotterdam, The Hague,Gothenburg, Brussels, and in Central and Eastern Europe, notablyOstrava.[40][41]
In the United States, American planner H. Dean Quinby defined the concept of a "limited tramway" in 1962, distinguishing it from traditional streetcars by features such as articulated vehicles, multiple doors, and higher capacity.[42]
The termlight rail transit was introduced in North America in 1972 to describe these upgraded systems.[3] The first of the new generation opened in 1978 inEdmonton, Alberta, using GermanSiemens-Duewag U2 vehicles, followed byCalgary andSan Diego. These proved successful and inspired many moreU.S.,Canadian, and Mexican light rail systems.
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From the 1980s onward, light rail and modern tramways experienced a renewed expansion worldwide. In Europe, new networks were built in cities that had abandoned trams, including the reopening of theNantes tramway in 1985, and systems inGrenoble,Paris,Strasbourg,Bordeaux,Dublin,Barcelona,Bergen[43][44][45] In Britain, modern light rail returned in the 1980s with theTyne and Wear Metro (1980),Manchester Metrolink (1992), andSouth Yorkshire Supertram (1994) andEdinburgh (2014).[46]
In North America, theSan Diego Trolley (1981)[47] became a model for later projects, and the number of U.S. systems roughly doubled between the 1990s and 2010s with expansions inPortland,Los Angeles,Denver,Dallas,Minneapolis andSeattle.[48] Canada added theIon in Waterloo and theConfederation Line in Ottawa (both 2019), while Australia introduced theSydney Light Rail in 1997.[49]
In Asia, theToyama Light Rail opened in 2006 as Japan's first new tramway in decades,[50] along with a series of Chinese systems such asShenyang,Nanjing,Guangzhou,Beijing andShanghai Songjiang.[51]
In Africa and the Middle East, new light rail was introduced inTunis (1985),[52]Rabat (2011),[53]Algiers (2011),Casablanca (2012),Jerusalem (2011),Dubai (2014),Addis Ababa (2015) andLusail (2022).[54]
In South America, projects included theAyacucho Tram inMedellín (2016) and theVLT Carioca inRio de Janeiro (2016).[55][56]
It can be hard to distinguish what is called light rail, and other forms of urban and commuter rail. A system termed as a light rail in one city may be considered to be a streetcar or tram system in another. Conversely, some lines that are called "light rail" are very close torapid transit. In recent years, new terms such aslight metro have been used to describe medium-capacity rail systems. Some "diesel light rail" systems, such asSprinter, bear little similarity to urban rail, and could alternatively be classified as commuter rail with lightweight trains.
There is a history of what would now be considered light rail vehicles operating on heavy railrapid transit tracks in the US, especially in the case ofinterurban streetcars. Notable examples areLehigh Valley Transit trains running on thePhiladelphia and Western Railroad high-speed third rail line (now theNorristown High-Speed Line).
Light rail corridors may constitute a fully segregated corridor, a dedicatedright-of-way on a street, an on-street corridor shared with other traffic, a corridor shared with other public transport, or a corridor shared with pedestrians,[57] resulting in a much higher flexibility thanheavy rail.[58]
Many systems have mixed characteristics. Indeed, with proper engineering, a rail line could run along a street, then go underground, and then run along an elevated viaduct. For example, theLos Angeles Metro Rail'sA Line "light rail" has sections that could alternatively be described as a tramway, a light metro, and, in a narrow sense, rapid transit. This is especially common in the United States, where there is not a popularly perceived distinction between these different types of urban rail systems.
The most difficult distinction to draw is that between low-floor light rail and streetcar or tram systems. There is a significant amount of overlap between the technologies; similar rolling stock may be used for either, and it is common to classify streetcars or trams as a subcategory of light rail rather than as a distinct type of transportation. However, some distinctions can be made, though systems may combine elements of both.[59] Low-floor light rail lines tend to follow a reserved right-of-way and with trains receiving priority at intersections, and tend not to operate in mixed traffic, enabling higher operating speeds.[59][60] Light rail lines tend to have less frequent stops than tramways, and operate over a longer distance.[61] Light rail cars are often coupled into multiple units of two to four cars.[60]
Light rail systems may also exhibit attributes of rapid transit systems, including having downtown subways, as inSan Francisco andSeattle. These partially grade separated light rail lines are sometimes called "semi-metro". This type of light rail emerged when the first subway in Boston opened in 1897 and became popular again in Europe from the 1950s onwards.[62] The development of technology for low-floor and catenary-free trams facilitates the construction of such mixed systems with only short and shallow underground sections below critical intersections as the required clearance height can be reduced significantly compared to conventional light rail vehicles.[63]
Light rail can be designed to address a gap in interurban transportation between mainline rail and bus services, carrying high passenger numbers more quickly than local buses and more cheaply than mainline trains. AroundKarlsruhe,Kassel, andSaarbrücken in Germany, dual-voltage light rail trains partly use mainline railroad tracks, sharing these tracks with mainline rail trains. This allows commuters to ride directly into the city center, rather than taking a mainline train only as far as a central station and then having to change to a tram. In France, similartram-trains are in use in Paris,Mulhouse, andStrasbourg; further plans exist. In 2022, Spain opened theCádiz TramBahia, where trams share track withcommuter and long-distance trains from the main terminus in the city and curve off to serve cities without a rail connection.Some of the issues involved in such schemes are:[64]
In some cases, tram-trains use previously abandoned or lightly used heavy rail lines in addition to or instead of still in use mainline tracks, like theManchester Metrolink. In theSan Diego region, the "SD&AE" freight line was used to create the initial stage of the light rail network of theSan Diego Trolley.[65] In theNetherlands, this concept was first applied on theRijnGouweLijn, and was followed by theRandstadRail project.
Many light rail systems—even fairly old ones—have a combination of both on- and off-road sections. In some countries (especially in Europe), only the latter is described as light rail. In those places, trams running on mixed rights-of-way are not regarded as a light rail but considered distinctly as streetcars or trams. However, the requirement for saying that a rail line is "separated" can be quite low—sometimes just with concrete "buttons" to discourage automobile drivers from getting onto the tracks. Some systems such asSeattle's Link had on-road mixed sections but were closed to regular road traffic, with light rail vehicles and buses both operating along a common right-of-way (however, Link converted to full separation in 2019).
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Low-floor LRVs have the advantage of a low-floor design, allowing them to load passengers directly from low-rise platforms that can be little more than raised curbs. High-floor light rail systems also exist, featuring larger stations.[59]
Reference speed from major light rail systems, including station stop time, is shown below.[66]
| System | Average speed (mph) | Average speed (km/h) |
|---|---|---|
| Baltimore | 24 | 39 |
| Dallas (Red Line) | 21 | 34 |
| Dallas (Blue Line) | 19 | 31 |
| Denver (Alameda-Littleton) | 38 | 61 |
| Denver (Downtown-Littleton) | 26 | 42 |
| Los Angeles (Blue Line) | 24 | 39 |
| Los Angeles (Green Line) | 38 | 61 |
| Salt Lake City | 24 | 39 |
However, low top speed is not always a differentiating characteristic between light rail and other systems. For example, theSiemens S70 LRVs used in theHoustonMETRORail and other North American LRT systems have a top speed of 55–71.5 miles per hour (88.51–115.1 km/h) depending on the system, while the trains on the all-undergroundMontreal Metro can only reach a top speed of 72 kilometres per hour (44.74 mph).LACMTA light rail vehicles have higher top and average speeds than Montreal Metro orNew York City Subway trains.[67]
Light rail systems operate between heavyrapid transit and conventional street-leveltrams.[68] Construction costs are typically lower than for metro systems, but building infrastructure can still be significant, sometimes leading to phased development or partial completion of lines.[69][70] Light rail vehicles can often be compatible with existing tram networks, avoiding the need for entirely separate infrastructure or rolling stock.[71][72] In some cases, multiple at-grade branches are used to maximize the capacity of tunneled sections.[73][74]
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Light rail systems can be defined by their right-of-way type and operational features such as power supply and speed.[75][13][76] Three main categories of right-of-way can be categorized as:[13]
Conventional tram lines typically operate on category C, light rail commonly uses category B with some sections of category A, while rapid transit generally operates entirely on category A.[13][76]
Grade-separated tracks correspond to fully independent right-of-way, while reserved tracks can be exclusive or semi-exclusive.[77] Light rail operating entirely on independent tracks is sometimes also referred to as light rail rapid transit.[11] Dedicated stretches of track may designed to function similarly to regularmetro or rapid transit lines.[78][79] One key difference from rapid transit is that light rail lines may only have one or a few sections in tunnels and on viaducts.[80][81]
Light rail systems historically used various gauges, withnarrow gauge common early on. Most modern systems usestandard gauge, which allows standard maintenance equipment, easier transfer of rolling stock, tighter turns witharticulated cars, and better low-floor accessibility. For example, theTren de la Costa inGreater Buenos Aires was converted from broad to standard gauge to accommodate light rail vehicles.[39]
Most light rail systems useoverhead lines for electricity, avoiding hazards from an electrifiedthird rail. Some systems use battery power for sections of track without overhead catenary,[82] while a few light rail systems usediesel power.[5][83]
Conduit power was an early alternative to overhead wires in cities prohibiting them, used in London, Paris, Berlin, Marseille, Budapest, Prague, New York City, and Washington, D.C.[84]
In Bordeaux, the tram network uses a ground-level third rail in the city center, segmented and powered only under trams to ensure safety. Outside the center, trams use overhead wires. The system is three times more expensive than conventional overhead wiring and has high maintenance costs but has proven popular, carrying up to 190,000 passengers per day.[85] . Sydney, Australia uses a similar system on the two of its lines.
Automatic train operation (ATO) monitors train position and speed, adjusting movements for safety and efficient operations, and is used in some light rail networks.[86]
Light rail routes are operated either with regular trams (with or withoutlow floor) or with specially developed tramcars (light rail vehicles), such as theStadtbahn-car 'type B'.[87]: 55 Many light rail systems (including in the United States),[88] are operated with larger and heavier vehicles than those on streetcar systems.[80]
| Type | Rapid transit (heavy rail)* | Light rail | Tram, or streetcar | Heritage streetcar |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Manufacturer | Rohr | Siemens | Skoda | Gomaco Trolley Co. |
| Model | BART A-Car | S70 | 10T | Replica Birney |
| Width | 3.2 metres (10 ft 6 in) | 2.7 metres (8 ft10+1⁄4 in) | 2.6 metres (8 ft6+3⁄8 in) | 2.62 metres (8 ft7+1⁄8 in) |
| Length | 22.9 metres (75 ft1+5⁄8 in) | 27.7 metres (90 ft10+1⁄2 in)articulated | 20.13 metres (66 ft1⁄2 in) articulated | 15.16 metres (49 ft8+7⁄8 in) |
| Weight (empty) | 63.1 t | 48.6 t[89] | 28.8 t | 23.5 t[90] |
| Capacity | 150 max. | 72 seats, 220 max.[89] | 30 seats, 157 max. | 40 seats, 50 max.[90] |
| Top speed | 125 km/h (77.7 mph) | 106 km/h (65.9 mph) | 70 km/h (43.5 mph) | 48 km/h (29.8 mph) |
| Typical consist | 4–10 vehicles | 2–5 vehicles | 1 vehicle | 1 vehicle |
TheBART railcar in the chart is not generally considered to be a "light rail" vehicle (it is aheavy rail vehicle), and is only included for comparison purposes.
Premetro is largely equal to light rail: a type of public transport in which trams run partly grade separated, by using tunnels and/or viaducts. However, there is one clear distinguishing factor: premetro uses infrastructure that has been explicitly constructed with the ambition to transfer to use metro trains in the future.[74]: 521 [87]: 9 [91][92] It is usually also developed from an existing classic tram network. One prominent example is the premetro in Brussels, where several premetro lines have been or will be converted into full heavy rail metro lines.
TheU-Stadtbahn is also an intermediate transportation form between metro and tram. It has originated in Germany, adapting the existing tram networks. Here specially developed trams run underground through tunnels in central urban areas.[87]: 10 [93][94] Stadtbahn lines can be subdivided by looking at the types of rolling stock.
Some systems, such as theAirTrain JFK in New York City, theDLR in London, andKelana Jaya Line inKuala Lumpur, have dispensed with the need for an operator. TheVancouverSkyTrain was an early adopter of driverless vehicles, while theTorontoScarborough rapid transit operated the same trains as Vancouver, but used drivers. In most discussions and comparisons, these specialized systems are generally not considered light rail but aslight metro systems. Light metro systems are essentially hybrids of light rail and rapid transit.[15][95]
In theUnited States,interurban-style services are now rare, largely because theFederal Railroad Administration (FRA) does not permit non-compliantrailcars (such asrapid transit or light rail vehicles) to operate simultaneously with standardfreight orpassenger equipment on the same tracks for safety reasons.
Exceptions, known ashybrid rail in the United States, includeNJ Transit'sRiver Line fromCamden andTrenton and theNorth County Transit District's (NCTD)Sprinter service innorthern San Diego County, California. These services operate under FRA waivers that allow passenger trains to run during daytime hours and freight trains at night, with several hours of temporal separation between the two. These diesel-powered systems use lightweightdiesel multiple units (DMUs) originally designed for mainline railroads.
While the wordlight in "light rail" refers to the lighter capacity compared to heavy rail/rapid transit, however the same word refers to lightweight in "very light rail'. One example in passengers service isBritish Rail Class 139 on theStourbridge Town branch line.
Very Light Rail developments with prefabricated track and onboard power (no Over Head Line) in the UK are aiming for £10 m per km[96] as opposed to convention tram rail and OHL at £20–£30 m per km.[97] First tests inCoventry have started in 2025, a full line should be operation able by 2027.
With its mix of right-of-way types and train control technologies, LRT offers the widest range of latitude of any rail system in the design, engineering, and operating practices. The challenge in designing light rail systems is to realize the potential of LRT to provide fast, comfortable service while avoiding the tendency to overdesign that results in excessive capital costs beyond what is necessary to meet the public's needs.[98]
| Alternative | Differences |
|---|---|
| Rapid transit | Rapid rail transit (RRT) trains are larger and faster than light rail trains, with stops being further apart.[83] Light rail vehicles (LRVs) are distinguished from RRT vehicles by their capability for operation in mixed traffic, generally resulting in a narrower car body and articulation to operate in a street traffic environment. With their large size, large turning radius, and often an electrifiedthird rail, RRT vehicles cannot operate in the street. Since LRT systems can operate in existing streets, they can often avoid the cost of expensivegrade-separated subway and elevated segments that would be required with RRT. |
| Streetcars or trams | Conversely, LRVs generally outperform traditional streetcars in terms of capacity and top-end speed, and almost all modern LRVs are capable ofmultiple-unit operation. The latest generation of LRVs is considerably larger and faster, typically29 metres (95 ft1+3⁄4 in) long with a maximum speed of around 105 kilometres per hour (65.2 mph).[99] |
| Heritage streetcars | A variation considered by many cities is to use historic or replica cars on their streetcar systems instead of modern LRVs. A heritage streetcar may not have the capacity and speed of an LRV, but it will add to the ambiance and historic character of its location. |
| Light metro | A derivative of LRT is light rail rapid transit (LRRT), also referred to aslight metro. Such railroads are characterized by exclusive rights of way, advanced train control systems, short headway capability, and floor-level boarding. These systems approach the passenger capacity of full metro systems but can be cheaper to construct due to LRVs generally being smaller in size, turning tighter curves and climbing steeper grades than standard RRT vehicles, and having a smaller station size. |
| Interurbans | The terminterurban mainly refers to rail cars that run through streets like ordinary streetcars (trams), but also between cities or towns, often through rural environments. In the period 1900–1930, interurbans were very common in the US, especially in theMidwest. Some of them, like theRed Devils, the J. G. BrillBullets, and theElectroliners, were thehigh-speed railcars of their time, with an in-service speed of up to about 145 km/h (90 mph). In Europe, interurbans are making a comeback as "tram-trains" (locally known under different names) that operate on both the railroad and light rail tracks, often with different voltages. TheKarlsruhe Stadtbahn is one well-known example. |
A single light rail line (requiring a 7.6 m [25 ft] right-of-way) can carry up to eight times more passengers than a 3.7 m (12 ft) freeway lane during peak periods. Freeway lanes typically reach capacity at about 2,000 vehicles per hour, beyond which traffic flow breaks down and speeds collapse.[100] With average commuter car occupancy of only 1.5 persons,[101] freeways carry a maximum of about 3,000 passengers per lane per hour. HOV lanes and ride-sharing can improve this, but most jurisdictions expand roadway capacity instead, sometimes worsening congestion (Downs–Thomson paradox,Braess's paradox).[102][103][104]
By contrast, light rail trains operating in two-track rights-of-way as narrow as two car lanes can exceed 20,000 passengers per hour per direction, and over 25,000 withmoving block signaling.[105][106]
Roadway person-throughput varies by permitted vehicle types. A typical car-only lane carries about 1,900 passenger cars per lane per hour (pcplph).[107] Adding buses or light rail raises capacity, as shown below:
| Car | Car + bus | Car + light rail | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Low volume | 900 | 1,650 | 2,250 |
| Medium volume | 900 | 2,350 | 3,250 |
| High volume | 900 | 3,400 | 4,600 |
| Source: Edson & Tennyson, 2003[full citation needed] | |||
Bus rapid transit (BRT) is often compared with LRT in corridor planning. BRT in dedicated lanes can exceed 30,000 passengers per hour per direction, as inGuangzhou Bus Rapid Transit, which operates up to 350 buses per hour. Achieving this requires large stations, bus priority at intersections, and overtaking lanes for express services. BRT labor and fuel costs are typically higher, since each bus requires a driver and most use non-electrified vehicles. Ride quality is also lower, with more abrupt braking and acceleration compared to rail.[108]
Most U.S. light rail systems are demand-limited, carrying under 4,000 passengers per hour per direction, though Boston and San Francisco reach 9,600 and 13,100 respectively.[109] Calgary'sC-Train and Mexico'sMonterrey Metro have higher ridership, while Manila'sLight Rail Transit System exceeds 40,000 per hour per direction, operating four-car trains of up to 1,350 passengers at 30 trains per hour. Manila's system, however, is fully grade-separated and more comparable to a metro.[110]
Light rail construction costs vary widely depending on tunneling and elevated structures. A survey of North American projects found most systems cost between $15 million and $100 million per mile, averaging $35 million (excluding Seattle).[111] Seattle'sLink Light Rail reached $179 million per mile due to tunneling, elevated sections, and deep stations,[112] while Baltimore, Camden, Sacramento, and Salt Lake City each built systems for under $20 million per mile.
By comparison, freeway lane expansion averages $2.3 million per lane-mile, but is usually built in less costly suburban or rural areas. The most expensive U.S. road project, Boston'sBig Dig, reached $200 million per lane-mile.[113] A light rail track can carry up to 20,000 passengers per hour, compared with 2,000–2,200 vehicles per freeway lane,[114] with Boston and San Francisco lines carrying 9,600 and 13,100 peak-hour passengers respectively.[109]
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Joint highway–LRT projects can lower costs, as shown by Denver'sTransportation Expansion Project, which rebuilt 17 mi of highway and added 19 mi of light rail for $1.67 billion, or $19.3 million per highway lane-mile and $27.6 million per rail mile. The project finished under budget and nearly two years early.[115][116]
The CalgaryCTrain minimized costs by avoiding tunnels and elevated sections, using existing rail corridors, and combining construction with freeway projects. Its capital cost was $24 million per mile,[117] about one-third that of theSan Diego Trolley. By 2009, Calgary carried three times San Diego's ridership with lower capital and operating cost per passenger. Operating costs average C$163 per train-hour, or about 27 cents per ride, compared with $1.50 for buses.[118][117]
Light rail often has lower labor costs per passenger mile, attracts more riders than buses,[119] and achieves faster speeds with fewer vehicles required. Vehicles cost more upfront but last longer, reducing life-cycle costs. Compared with heavy rail, LRT has lower capital but higher operating costs.[120]
Light rail energy efficiency is estimated at 120 passenger-miles per gallon of fuel equivalent, though performance varies with context.[121]
An analysis of data from the 505-page National Transportation Statistics report[122] published by the US Department of Transportation shows that light rail fatalities are higher than all other forms of transportation except motorcycle travel (31.5 fatalities per 100 million miles).[123]
However, the National Transportation Statistics report published by the US Department of Transportation states that:[122]
Caution must be exercised in comparing fatalities across modes because significantly different definitions are used. In particular, Rail and Transit fatalities include incident-related (as distinct from accident-related) fatalities, such as fatalities from falls in transit stations or railroad employee fatalities from a fire in a workshed. Equivalent fatalities for the Air and Highway modes (fatalities at airports not caused by moving aircraft or fatalities from accidents in automobile repair shops) are not counted toward the totals for these modes. Thus, fatalities not necessarily directly related to in-service transportation are counted for the transit and rail modes, potentially overstating the risk for these modes.
Studies have attributed light rail with a number of health impacts. Research has associated light rail positively with increased walking and decreased obesity.[124][125] Additionally, one electric light rail train produces nearly 99 percent lesscarbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions per mile than one automobile does.[126]
Worldwide around 400 cities have one or more tram/light rail systems. Some date back to the 19th century, and by the 1930s almost 900 tram/light rail system existed. Many of the original tram and streetcar systems were closed down in the mid-20th century, except in most Central and Eastern European countries. Other cities that once closed down their streetcar networks are now restoring, or have already rebuilt, at least some of their former streetcar/tram systems.[127]
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{{cite book}}:|website= ignored (help)In other cases, a tramway may be upgraded by extensive construction of city-centre tunnels, and some stations at which all tickets are sold prior to boarding the vehicle ('semi-metro'), for example in Stuttgart. An advantage of such systems is that trams can be diverted into relatively short sections of tunnel as they are built, rather than waiting for a major portion of the system to be completed before operations can commence.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)descending into tunnels in the style of conventional underground mass transit
Semi-metro: Light rail on reserved right of way over congested parts of line typically in tunnel or viaduct for grade separation designed to Metro standards, with priority surface light rail in other sections
Rather soon attention was given to Light Rapid Transit modes such as pre-metro and semi-metro (Hannover) employing heavy trams instead of light trains to run on open-air independent or semi-independent tracks, and just and just seldom using short bypass tunnels or fly-evers to skip congestion in central areas.
pre-metro: a light rail transit system designed with provisions for easy conversion to rail rapid transit
Köln, like other major German cities served by ICE services over high-speed lines, has a regional rail system (Schnellbahn) and a substantial tramway system, part operated as Stadtbahn (semi metro).
{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help)
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