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The history of liberalism in India goes back to the period ofEast India Company rule, during which reforms began to be introduced to the governance of India.
The early 19th century saw a slate of liberal reforms spearheaded byGovernors-GeneralLord William Bentinck andSir Charles Metcalfe, and education reformerThomas Babington Macaulay. These included the establishment of press freedom as government policy, economic liberalisation and the widespread introduction of English-language education. Liberals were cognisant that Lord Bentinck's desire to reduce barriers to Indians working in the civil service would lead to self-government; Lord Bentinck also desired the establishment of legal equality.[1]
At the end of 19th century,Gladstonian liberals inducted Indians from the elite class into new representative institutions, thereby providing a framework for later self-rule, which became a reality by 1947.[2]
Three strands of liberalism have manifested in India- Colonial (eg:Charles Cornwallis,Thomas Babington Macaulay), Nationalist (eg:Rammohan Roy,Surendranath Banerjee), Radical (Jyotirao Phule,B. R. Ambedkar).[3]
Right-wing journalistSwapan Dasgupta wrote in 1994 that the spirit of liberalism in India is superficial and is tempered by what he views as authoritarian ideologies likeMarxism.[4]
Rise of liberalism
Prominent ideas ofclassical liberalism emerged in United Kingdom at the wane of the 18th century. These began as primarilyleftist schools of thought, including, but not limited to, concepts such asindividualism,liberty, andegalitarianism. Simultaneously,British India underwent a similar chrysalis. The effects of classical liberalism in India introduced many Western practices, philosophical doctrines, and political ideologies to the nation.[citation needed]
Governor Generals of theBritish East India CompanyWarren Hastings andCharles Cornwallis instituted numerous changes over their rules. Notably, Cornwallis instituted theCornwallis Code in 1793, a code of law influenced byHindu andMuslim legal frameworks. The code placed the British at the top of a system regardingcaste and religion that was present in India at the time. This marked the beginning of more than a century of classical liberalism in British India[5]
Scottish writerJames Mill gained prominence among the British around this time. Generally regarded as autilitarianimperialist influenced by classical liberalism,[6] his most successful work wasA History of British India, published in 1817. Mill divided Indian history into three significant eras: Hindu (ancient), Muslim (medieval), and British (modern). Mill’sreductionist philosophy toward Indian history set harmful precedent for British figures and liberal policies in the years to come, including his son,John Stuart Mill, the policies of Governor GeneralThomas Macaulay, and numerous other figures.[7] In his 1999 workLiberalism and Empire,Uday Singh Mehta outlines the framework that Mill proactively established, stating that a nation's progress is dependent on a much more powerful nation:
“Mill sees in the histories of backward civilizations a potentiality on account of which they can in fact progress. But the actualization of this potentiality typically turns on a force external to those civilizations … Hindu civilization, for Mill, epitomizes this condition of being stalled in the past. But various aspects of Hindu Civilization had prepared it for progressive transformation.”[8]
Mehta later goes on to highlight Mill's argument that the Muslims laid the foundation for British rule to thrive, and that Hindu and Muslim culture were in need of assistance from the British.[9] This motif among British liberalists, that Indians (both Hindus and Muslims), were not capable of civilized self-rule, appears again, as a common occurrence throughout the nineteenth century. The significance of Mill's opus is noticeable in the practical regulations established by Thomas Macaulay soon after. Macaulay served on Lord William Bentinck's Governor-General Supreme Council from 1834 to 1838,[10] and went on to publish hisMinute on Indian Education in February 1835. This work set precedent for English education to be mandated in India, with the same, negative perception the British garnered toward Indians, as stated throughout:
“When we pass from works of imagination to works in which facts are recorded, and general principles investigated, the superiority of the Europeans becomes absolutely immeasurable … all the historical information which has been collected from all the books written in the Sanscrit language is less valuable than what may be found in the most paltry abridgments used at preparatory schools in England.”[11]
Indian intellectuals of the era
A key figure from early 19th century isRaja Ram Mohan Roy. He, along with his compatriots, created a constitutional history for India centred on a local judicial body calledPanchayat. Roy himself put forward arguments in favour of Indian representation in Parliament and for constitutionally limiting the East India Company' power. He felt that the Indian public would be empowered by free press and service on juries under a liberal British government.[12] Roy wanted modernity in curriculum for Indian students while not rejecting tradition outright. He was inspired byChristian humanism and insisted on reforming Hinduism, making it more ethical and rational.
Another important person wasGopal Krishna Gokhale, leader of theIndian National Congress who demanded self-rule for theIndian subcontinent.[13]
Radical liberals, in contrast to the moderates, were not interested in rehabilitating the Hindu past. They insisted that Hinduism cannot be redeemed because of its historical denial of rights to the downtrodden castes. Western education and scientific principles were to be the adopted rather than giving in to Brahminical dominance (again) according to the radicals like Ambedkar.[14]
Liberalism in post-independence period
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar is a proponent ofliberalism inIndia, promotingindividual rights,social equality, andconstitutional democracy. As the primary architect of theIndian Constitution, he incorporated liberal ideas such asfree speech,secularism, and therule of law, assuring protections foroppressed groups.[15] Ambedkar championed education as a method of emancipation, arguing that universal access is necessary for individual empowerment. While his method had elements ofclassical liberalism.[16] He emphasizedhuman dignity and self-reliance while also advocating for state participation in social justice, including affirmative action and economic safeguards to promote inclusive growth. His idea transformed Indian society into a more equal democracy, integrating liberalism and social justice.[17][18][19]
Following independence, various critics emerged against Nehruvian Liberalism, such asChakravarthi Rajagopalachari, informally known as Rajaji, who parted ways with theIndian National Congress in 1957 and formed theSwatantra Party which supported classical liberal principles and free enterprise.[20] Since then, many new thinkers such asS. V. Raju,Sharad Anantrao Joshi, Barun Mitra,Jayaprakash Narayan, Parth J. Shah,Gurcharan Das, Sauvik Chakraverti,Raghavendar Askani,Venkatesh Geriti, among others, have emerged on the Indian liberal scene, contributing to the debate on freedom in India, and advancingclassical liberalism.[21][22]
Role of the State
One view is that Indian liberalism has primarily been the context created by the actions of the State – it is not easy to identify a consistent and organic belief system in the country as 'liberal'.[23]
India's first attempt ateconomic liberalisation was carried out in 1966 as a precondition to an increase in foreign aid.[24]
AfterRajiv Gandhi becameprime minister in 1984, many young leaders supporting liberal ideologies were made ministers.[25]
The economic liberalisation of 1991, initiated by then-prime ministerP. V. Narasimha Rao in response to the1991 Indian economic crisis, did away with theLicense Raj and ended many public monopolies, allowing automatic approval offoreign direct investment in many sectors.[26][27]
The defeat of Indian liberalism at the hands of illiberal political formations has been attributed to elitism, estrangement from the ideal of equality, and the bad faith inherent in its concept of secularism.[34]
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