Leopold I (Leopold George Christian Frederick[a]; 16 December 1790 – 10 December 1865) was the firstking of the Belgians, reigning from 21 July 1831 until his death in 1865.
The youngest son ofFrancis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, Leopold took a commission in theImperial Russian Army and fought againstNapoleon after French troops overranSaxe-Coburg during theNapoleonic Wars. After Napoleon's defeat, Leopold moved to the United Kingdom, where in 1816 he marriedPrincess Charlotte of Wales, the only child of theBritish Prince Regent (later George IV). Leopold and Charlotte's marriage was happy, but it ended after a year and a half when Charlotte died after delivering a stillborn son. Leopold continued to enjoy considerable status in Britain.
After theGreek War of Independence, Leopold was offered thethrone of Greece under the1830 London Protocol that created an independent Greek state, but turned it down, believing it to be too precarious. Instead, he accepted the throne of Belgium in 1831 followingthe country's independence in 1830. The Belgian government offered the position to Leopold because of his diplomatic connections with royal houses across Europe, and because as the British-backed candidate, he was not affiliated with other powers, such as France, which were believed to have territorial ambitions in Belgium which might threaten theEuropean balance of power created by the 1815Congress of Vienna.
Leopold took hisoath as King of the Belgians on 21 July 1831, an event commemorated annually asBelgian National Day. The following year, he marriedPrincess Louise of Orléans, with whom he had four children. He also had two illegitimate sons by his mistress,Arcadie Claret. Leopold's reign was marked by attempts by the Dutch to recapture Belgium and, later, by internal political division between Liberals and Catholics. Leopold was considered a liberalProtestant ruler and encouraged economic modernisation, playing an important role in funding the creation ofBelgium's first railway in 1835 and subsequentindustrialisation. As a result of the ambiguities in theBelgian Constitution, Leopold was able to slightly expand the monarch's powers during his reign and assumed multiple ministries. He also played an important role in stopping the spread of theRevolutions of 1848 into Belgium. He died in 1865 and was succeeded by his son,Leopold II.
From 1797, Leopold was tutored by Charles-Theodore Hoflender, a graduate of theUniversity of Jena and a professor in Coburg. Under Hoflender, he studied Biblical history, Christianity, mathematics and languages, including Greek, Latin and Russian.[5] In 1799, Leopold and his siblings also became tutored by Johann Philipp Hohnbaum, who specialised in teaching physical education and in teaching history of Great Britain, the Holy Roman Empire and Saxony.[6] Hohnbaum cited that Leopold was fascinated by history and conflicts such as theThirty Years War.[7] Lutheran pastor Gottlieb Scheler taught Leopoldcatechism. Historian Olivier Defrance wrote that Scheler's teaching ofPietism had a lasting influence on Leopold.[5] From 1804, aged thirteen, Leopold kept a diary and learnt English, French and Italian.[8] Leopold often heard stories of military experience from his great-uncle,Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld,[9] and inherited his father's passion for pigeon racing and floriculture.[7]
In 1805, at fourteen years old, Leopold accompanied his older brother,Ernest, Hereditary Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, to Moravia, where the headquarters ofAlexander I, Emperor of Russia were located; however, neither Leopold nor Ernest partook in combat.[12] Following theBattle of Austerlitz, during theNapoleonic Wars, French troops occupied the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg in 1806.[13] Leopold and his father, Francis, took refuge in Saalfeld; however, Francis died on 9 December 1806, six days before theTreaty of Poznan assigned the Duchy to theConfederation of the Rhine, thus abolishing the Duchy's sovereignty.[14] WhenNapoleon learned that Ernest had previously fought against the French, he removed the Duchy from the Confederation, before seizing the properties of Leopold's family.[15] Leopold and his mother were confined to a section of one of the confiscated castles and were not let out. During this time, Leopold wrote to his sister,Princess Sophie of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld: "The poor country of Cobourg is terribly penalized; It must pay 981,000 francs; it's huge. Our coffers and our estates, in short all our income, were confiscated by the Emperor Napoleon. No appanage can be paid."[16] After intervention by the Russian Emperor, Napoleon declared the Duchy to be part of the Confederation of the Rhine once more by adding it to theTreaty of Tilsit. Ernest as the new reigning Duke was allowed to return to Coburg in July 1807.[17]
Napoleon and Alexander I depicted at the Congress of Erfurt
Leopold soon went to Paris where he became part of the Imperial Court of Napoleon. Napoleon's wife,Joséphine de Beauharnais, took a protective attitude of Leopold, who met Napoleon in October 1808.[18] According to the historianCarlo Bronne, Napoleon was in awe of Leopold and briefly considered making him hisaide-de-camp.[19] In Spring 1808, Leopold contractedtyphoid fever and when he recovered, he shortly becameregent of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld when Ernest visited Russia.[20][21] Napoleon later offered Leopold the position of adjutant, but he refused and instead went to Russia to take up a military career in the Imperial Russian cavalry, which then later went to war with France. Leopold accompanied Emperor Alexander I in September 1808 and represented his home Duchy at theCongress of Erfurt, where Napoleon failed to strengthen Franco-Russian relations while the Duchy's interests were ignored. He wrote to Alexander I for assistance, leading to Napoleon demanding that he resign from the Russian army.[22]
In Autumn 1810, Ernest asked Leopold to find financial aid for the Duchy, which was lacking soldiers and had been badly affected by war and its previous occupation.[23][24] Leopold met Napoleon, who refused to aid the Duchy, but offered that Leopold join the French army. Leopold strongly refused.[25] In May 1811, Leopold went toMunich and although he was unsuccessful in securing funding, he managed to persuadeMaximilian I Joseph of Bavaria to return small territories that Bavaria had previously annexed from the Duchy. Leopold was hailed in the media for this achievement.[26] Following his visit to Munich, Leopold travelled toVienna, then to various Italian cities during the winter.[27] He wrote: "The years of 1810 and 1811 were quite calm. I was disappointed to find myself forbidden from serving in Russia by Napoleon who held my brother responsible, because he knew that otherwise he would not have been able to prevent me."[28] In March 1813, Leopold was finally allowed to rejoin the Russian Imperial army.[29]
During 1813, Leopold was an active member of the Russian army and participated in the liberation of German states from Napoleonic France. On 28 February 1813, after the signing of theTreaty of Kalisz, Leopold said to Emperor Alexander, "I was the first German Prince who joined the liberating army".[30] Leopold participated in multiple conflicts against French troops, including theBattle of Lützen,Battle of Bautzen andBattle of Leipzig. He worked closely with his brother-in-law, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia, during this time. On 26 August 1813, Leopold helpedDuke Eugen of Württemberg escape his occupiers. Three days later, Leopold was nearly captured by French forces.[31] Later, on 29 and 30 August 1813, Leopold fought in theBattle of Kulm as the head of hiscuirassier division. The battle was a French loss, and Leopold was decorated for his participation with theCross of St. George, theOrder of St. Andrew, theOrder of Alexander Nevsky, theOrder of Saint Anna and theKulm Cross. Additionally, he was promoted to Major General in the Russian Army.[32]
Leopold and Konstantin Pavlovich were unsuccessful in reuniting with Leopold's sister, Julianne, inBern in January 1814. Leopold entered France with the Russian army on 30 January.[33] On 1 February, he participated in theBattle of Brienne, which resulted in the occupation ofTroyes. Additionally, during theBattle of Arcis-sur-Aube, Leopold commanded the right wing on the army, with France successfully defeated, before Paris was marched on four days later.[34] On 31 March, Leopold too entered Paris,as Napoleon fell, to which Leopold commented: "This is the extent to which prudence has humiliated this tyrant, to the horror of all those who would want to follow his example."[16] Leopold and Ernest represented the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld at theCongress of Vienna. The Kingdom of Prussia, which Leopold and the Russian Imperial army had fought alongside, was opposed to any gains made by the Duchy, which had been against the annexation of Saxony, an ally of France.[35] During the Congress, Leopold held audience withArchduke John of Austria and ChancellorKlemens von Metternich.[36] When Napoleon returned from exile in March 1815, Leopold commanded a Russian cavalry brigade as alieutenant general, aged 25, on the outskirts of France, as Napoleon lost theBattle of Waterloo.[1]
An Act far exhibiting a Bill in this present Parliament, for naturalizing His Serene Highness Leopold George Frederick Duke of Saxe, Margrave of Meissen, Landgrave of Thuringuen, Prince of Cobourg of Saalfeld.
An Act for the Naturalization of His Serene Highness Leopold George Frederick Duke of Saxe, Margrave of Meissen, Landgrave of Thuringuen, Prince of Cobourg of Saalfeld; and settling his Precedence.
In Spring 1814, Leopold accompanied Emperor Alexander to England, wherePrincess Charlotte of Wales was seeking a spouse. Charlotte was the only legitimate child ofPrince George, Prince Regent (later George IV), and therefore secondin line to the British throne. George had hoped Charlotte would marryWilliam, Prince of Orange, but Charlotte favoured Leopold. Emperor Alexander was also opposed to Charlotte marrying William as he believed a future personal union between Great Britain and the Netherlands would become a maritime superpower and dominate the seas.[37] Leopold and Charlotte lost contact for months, and the latter often wrote to the former asking that he return to Britain to propose to her. Leopold receivedBritish citizenship in March 1816.[38] Finally, the pair married atCarlton House in London on 2 May 1816.[3] Although George was displeased, he found Leopold to be charming and possessing every quality to make his daughter happy, and so approved their marriage. The same year Leopold received an honorary commission to the rank ofField Marshal and Knight of theOrder of the Garter.[1] The Regent also considered making Leopold aroyal duke, theDuke of Kendal, though the plan was abandoned due to government fears that it would draw Leopold into party politics and would be viewed as a demotion for Charlotte.[38] The couple lived initially at Camelford House inPark Lane,[39] and then atMarlborough House in The Mall.[40]
Leopold and Charlotte moved intoClaremont House in August 1816. When Charlotte later suffered a miscarriage, Leopold became concerned for her health. When Charlotte again fell pregnant, she was advised by her obstetrician,Sir Richard Croft, to drastically reduce her diet; however, Leopold's physician,Christian Stockmar, heavily disagreed with this advice.[41] Charlotte gave birth to astillborn son on 5 November 1817. She suffered complications and, just after midnight on 6 November, also died. Leopold was said to have been heartbroken by Charlotte's death.[42]
Deep down, I was made for a life of family intimacy [...]. I wanted to be quiet and happy with my mouse [Charlotte] and nothing more [...] Charlotte was a very pretty woman and she possessed to a very high degree of what the English call countenance.
— Leopold writing to his sister upon Charlotte's death.[43]
Had Charlotte survived, she would have becomequeen of the United Kingdom on the death of her father and Leopold presumably would have assumed the role ofprince consort, later taken by his nephewAlbert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Stockmar, who became Leopold's private secretary, advised him to stay in Britain rather than returning to Coburg and despite Charlotte's death, George granted Leopold the British style ofRoyal Highness byOrder in Council on 6 April 1818.[44] However, the British public was opposed to the annuity of 50,000 pounds sterling paid by the British government to Leopold, who was no longer even a member of the British royal family. From 1828 to 1829, Leopold had an affair with the actressCaroline Bauer, who bore a striking resemblance to Charlotte. Caroline was a cousin of Stockmar. She came to England with her mother and took up residence at Longwood House, a few miles from Claremont House. But, by mid-1829, the liaison was over, and the actress and her mother returned to Berlin. Many years later, in memoirs published after her death, she declared that she and Leopold had engaged in amorganatic marriage and that he had bestowed upon her the title of Countess Montgomery. He would have broken this marriage when the possibility arose that he could becomeKing of Greece.[45] The son of Stockmar denied that these events ever happened, and indeed no records have been found of a civil or religious marriage with the actress.[46]
Following Charlotte's death, Leopold assisted members ofhis family in acceding to various European thrones. He encouraged his sister,Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, to marry George's brother,Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, after her first husband,Emich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen, had died. Victoria and Edward were the parents of the futureQueen Victoria, who was born in 1819 and lost her father in 1820. Leopold allowed her and her mother to live with him in Claremont House and convinced George, who was now monarch, that he should give apartments inKensington Palace to them.[47] Leopold went on to support George's wife,Caroline of Brunswick, in marital disputes and even visited Caroline during George's crowning, leading to disdain from George. Leopold nonetheless remained in Britain for another fourteen years after the death of Charlotte but regularly travelled Europe.[48]
Following aGreek rebellion against theOttoman Empire, Leopold was offered the throne of an independent Greece as part of theLondon Protocol of February 1830, which stipulated that the new monarch could not be of Great Britain, France or Russia.[51][52]
Though Leopold resided in Britain, he was not considered a member of the British royal family as he was not of theHouse of Hanover. He was quite popular across Europe for his role in the Napoleonic wars and, according to Defrance, was often mentioned in Greek "anglophile circles".[53] Despite popularity, he was often in dispute with George and the British government, who supported Leopold as a candidate for the Greek throne and subsequently demanded he give up his British possessions.[54][55] Leopold eventually agreed and accepted this offer fromDuke of Wellington, theprime minister of the United Kingdom, and his Cabinet. However, Leopold was still anxious to accept the Greek throne and demanded certain conditions, including having the Greco-Ottoman border changed in Greece's favour by amending the border crossing theAchelous River and Valley, receiving financial and military aid while the state was being set up, and having protection of Greece by theGreat Powers from foreign aggression. He argued that this zone of protection should be extended all the way toSamos andCrete, whose populations had been active in the Greek War of Independence.[52][56] Most of his demands were agreed to in a series of discussions, with particular priority in protecting the majority Christian inhabitants of the Greek islands. With the Great Powers mainly satisfied, they signed new international protocol, officially giving Leopold, "the son-in-law of George IV", the title of "Sovereign Prince of Greece". A few days later, on 28 February 1830, Leopold officially accepted the Greek crown.[57]
Leopold contactedIoannis Kapodistrias, thede factoGovernor of the Greek State, who he had known since the Napoleonic Wars. Leopold asked of him in his letters to provide assistance in his accession to the throne; however, Kapodistrias' reply on 6 April was not of reassuring nature. Kapodistrias insisted that Leopold's border changes did not satisfy Greece, provoked the Ottoman Empire and would need to be ratified by the legislature. Contrary to historians Michel Lhéritier and Édouard Driault, Defrance claims that Kapodistrias's motive was to possibly intimidate Leopold. Kapodistrias also very strongly encouraged Leopold to convert toGreek Orthodoxy to the wishes of the Greek people, but Leopold was displeased by this. Later that month, theGreek Senate drafted a memorandum addressed to Leopold to welcome him and give a list of requests of the Greek people, including the border issue, the inclusion of Samos, Crete and Psara in the new Greek nation and the religion of Leopold. From London, Leopold worked to achieve these requests and even succeeded in increasing loans granted to Greece from 12 million to 60 million francs; however, he failed to resolve the border dispute and annex Crete from the Ottoman Empire. Feeling the Greek population was too demanding and precarious, Leopold turned down the offer to become King of Greece on 17 May 1830.[58] The role would subsequently be accepted byOtto of Wittelsbach in May 1832 who ruled untilhe was finally deposed in October 1862.[59] Otto would then be replaced by theHouse of Glücksburg, with Prince Wilhelm of Denmark becomingGeorge I of Greece.[60]
At the end of August 1830, rebels in theSouthern provinces (modern-day Belgium) of theUnited Netherlands rose up against Dutch rule. The rising, which began inBrussels, pushed the Dutch army back, and the rebels defended themselves against a Dutch attack. International powersmeeting in London agreed to support the independence of Belgium, even though the Dutch refused to recognize the new state.[61] In November 1830, aNational Congress was established in Belgium to create a constitution for the new state. Fears of "mob rule" associated with republicanism after theFrench Revolution of 1789, as well as the example of the recent, liberalJuly Revolution in France, led the Congress to decide that Belgium would be apopular,constitutional monarchy.[62] The choice of candidates for the position was one of the most controversial issues faced by the revolutionaries. The Congress refused to consider any candidate from the Dutch rulinghouse of Orange-Nassau. SomeOrangists had hoped to offer the position toWilliam I or his son,William, Prince of Orange, which would bring Belgium intopersonal union with the Netherlands like Luxembourg. TheGreat Powers also worried that a candidate from another state could risk destabilizing theinternational balance of power and lobbied for a neutral candidate.[63]
Eventually the Congress was able to draw up a shortlist. The viable possibilities were felt to beAuguste of Leuchtenberg, son ofEugène de Beauharnais, andLouis, Duke of Nemours, son of Louis Philippe I of France. All the candidates were French and the choice between them was principally between choosing theBonapartism of Beauharnais or Leuchtenberg and supporting theJuly Monarchy of Louis Philippe.[64] Louis Philippe realized that the choice of either of theBonapartists could be first stage of a coup against him, but that his son would also be unacceptable to other European powers suspicious of French intentions. Nemours refused the offer.[65] With no definitive choice in sight, Catholics and Liberals united to electErasme Louis Surlet de Chokier, a minor Belgian nobleman, asregent to buy more time for a definitive decision in February 1831.[66]
Due to opposition of previous candidates, the Belgian Congress proposed Leopold, who had been proposed at an early stage, but had been dropped because of French opposition.[64] The problems caused by the French candidates and the increased international pressure for a solution led to his reconsideration. Leopold was known by the Congress due to his military past and a delegation of Belgian representatives was sent to London to meet Leopold. On 22 April, he was finally approached by the delegation atMarlborough House to officially offer him the throne.[67] Leopold read over theTreaty of the Eighteen Articles prior to it being signed on 9 July 1831, officially separating Belgium and the Netherlands. The treaty also included the possibility of a repurchase of Luxembourg by Belgium. Despite all this, Leopold remained reluctant to accept the Belgian throne.[68]
On 16 July 1831, Leopold travelled fromDover toCalais on the royal yachtCrusader, deciding to accept the throne. The next day he drove by carriage toDunkirk and entered Belgium atDe Panne.[69] Whilst travelling to Brussels on horseback, he was greeted with patriotic enthusiasm along his route.[70] The accession ceremony took place on 21 July on thePlace Royale in Brussels. A stand had been erected on the steps of theChurch of St. James on Coudenberg, surrounded by the names of revolutionaries fallen during the fighting in 1830. After a ceremony of resignation by the regent, Leopold, dressed in the uniform of a Belgian lieutenant-general, swore loyalty to the constitution, under the supervision of congressmanJean-Baptiste Nothomb, and became king.[71] Leopold said in his speech: "I have come hither to work for the welfare of this country, and to preserve, by my acceptance of the crown, the peace of Europe; whatever can contribute to these two things, I will do it; anything beyond that will be harmful."[72] Leopold's enthronement has generally been used to mark the end of the revolution and the start of the Kingdom of Belgium and is celebrated each year asthe Belgian national holiday.[73]
Although the Belgian Constitution to which Leopold swore gave the monarch command of the army only as an honorary title, Leopold signalled on multiple occasions that he would personally place himself in charge of the army if Belgium were to be attacked. The Belgian population was widely content with this due to his previous military experience. Less than two weeks after Leopold's accession, on 2 August 1831, the Netherlands invaded Belgium, starting theTen Days' Campaign. Leopold immediately requested thatBelgian prime minister,Joseph Lebeau, contact the foreign offices in London and Paris for assistance. Leopold here followed the Constitution, which forbade him personally from calling upon foreign powers without permission from the legislature, which at this time had not yet been elected.[74] The small Belgian army was overwhelmed by the Dutch assault and was pushed back, and Leopold took command of a small force that defended the outskirts of Brussels. Leopold once again appealed to the French for support. The French promised support, and the arrival of theirArmée du Nord in Belgium forced the Dutch to retreat. Great Britain refused to intervene.[75] Eventually, the Netherlands accepted a diplomatic mediation and returned behind to the pre-war border. Skirmishes continued for eight years, but in April 1839, the two countries signed theTreaty of London, whereby the Dutch finally recognised Belgium's independence.[76]
Leopold's attitude during the war earned him both praise and criticism in the Belgian media. For example, an article inL'Indépendance Belge read, "The King of the Belgians, [...] showed rare composure and intrepidity. Always in the most perilous places, he was often obliged to fulfil both the functions of generalissimo and those of second lieutenant."[77] However, an article the following day critiqued, "The approach of our troops repaired everything, but what is less repairable is the failure that the Belgians suffered in the opinion of Europe."[78] Following the war and large losses that Belgium suffered, Leopold reorganised national defence, disbanded theGarde Civique and legislated the army's numbers at 80,000 men. When the Dutch abandoned Belgium, they left a garrison force that closed theScheldt to Belgian shipping, meaning that the inlandport of Antwerp was effectively useless.[79] The Netherlands and the Dutch colonies in particular, which had been profitable markets for Belgian manufacturers before 1830, became totally closed to Belgian goods. The FrenchArmy of the North, which had helped Belgium considerably in the Ten Days' Campaign, defeated the Dutch army the following year and laidsiege to Antwerp on 15 November 1832. However, the Dutch managed to burn down much of the city before its liberation, and subsequent fighting remained until the Netherlands was finally defeated on 23 December 1832. The Dutch government continued to refuse to recognise the Treaty of the Eighteen Articles andWilliam I of the Netherlands organised in May 1833 an embargo of Dutch coasts. Belgian, British and Dutch delegations subsequently met inZonhoven to resolve the matters, but Leopold left unsatisfied as no agreements were definitively made.[80]
In April 1834, anti-Orangist riots broke out in Brussels and soon developed into protests in favour of Leopold. Several of the former residences of William's family in Belgium and hotels in Brussels were ransacked, leading to Leopold travelling in on horseback and convincing the protestors to disband by giving a speech. Leopold's advisers believed that peace had been restored and suggested he left, but soon after the Hotel of Trazegnies was also ransacked and the military were sent in.[81] Over 115 people were arrested and seven were wounded, before the Belgian legislature passed a law punishing pro-Orangist propaganda.[82] Subsequently, Leopold took charge of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to deal with diplomatic clashes with the Netherlands, including the matter of Belgian claims toDutch Limburg, which Leopold was unable to obtain, thus ruining his prospect for a new railway line through the region. He was successful however in reducing the country's debt to the Netherlands from 8,400,000 to 5,400,000florins.[83] The Netherlands would finally go on to recognise Belgian independence by signing theTreaty of London in 1839. The Dutch-Belgian border was agreed to on 8 August 1843 with theTreaty of Maastricht.[84]
Leopold was generally unsatisfied with the amount of power allocated to the monarch in the Constitution, and sought to extend it wherever the Constitution was ambiguous or unclear while generally avoiding involvement in routine politics.[85]
Though Leopold was now monarch, there was concern over the issue of dynastic succession with Leopold having no issue because of his widowed status. To strengthen ties with France, Leopold considered marrying a French princess and approached theking of the French,Louis Philippe I, who agreed to Leopold marrying his daughter,Louise of Orléans.[86] They married on 9 August 1832 at theChâteau de Compiègne and participated in a civil ceremony, a Catholic service and a Lutheran blessing.[87] Although the marriage was arranged, Patrick Roegiers writes that the pair found happiness in each other. Soon after their wedding, Leopold asked the government if Louise could be appointed regent while he travelled, but they unanimously opposed. Louise gave birth to their first son,Louis Philippe, on 24 July 1833; however, the infant died nine months later on 16 May 1834 from an inflammation of mucous membranes.[88] Two years later, on 9 April 1835, Louise gave birth to a second son,Leopold. Two more children,Philippe andCharlotte, followed on 24 March 1837 and 7 June 1840 respectively.[89][90]
Of his three royal residences, the Royal Palace of Antwerp, theRoyal Palace of Brussels and theCastle of Laeken, Leopold chose the latter as it reminded him of his erstwhile British residence, Claremont House. There, Leopold and Louise lived a generally relaxed and quiet life, with Louise stating that "The King, his dog and I" only lived there.[91] According to Bronne, they would wake up mid-morning, attend mass and then read through their mail, which was sent in from Paris. Louise was often excited to read Parisian mail as it often came from her own family. When receiving politicians, officials and members of Belgian aristocracy, Leopold would often engage incue sports.[92]
In 1844, Leopold metArcadie Claret, the eighteen-year-old daughter of an officer in the Belgian army.[93] They very soon after had an affair and Leopold encouraged her to marry to avoid being caught out. Claret married Ferdinand Meyer in 1845, who managed the royal stables and agreed to be her husband in return for financial compensation. However, Meyer soon left for Coburg to allow Leopold and Claret to continue their relationship. Claret was placed in a house near the Royal Palace of Brussels and was discovered as Leopold's mistress by the media, which also highlights Louise's declining health. Claret's house was attacked by the public for her use of palace carriages when going out. Leopold, per his advisors, encouraged Claret to have more restraint when travelling, but she left Belgium for Germany in October 1850. She eventually returned to Belgium and moved into theChâteau of Stuyvenberg.[94] Leopold had two illegitimate sons, George and Arthur, by Claret.[95][96]George von Eppinghoven [fr] was born in 1849, andArthur von Eppinghoven [fr] in 1852. At Leopold's request,[96] in 1862 his two sons were created Freiherr von Eppinghoven by his nephew,Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. In 1863, Claret was also created Baronin von Eppinghoven.[97]
While the drafters of the Belgian Constitution aimed to make Belgium a constitutional monarchy, making the monarch a neutral and impartial arbiter, Leopold had managed to assign himself significant powers, such as assuming multiple ministries and taking charge of many diplomatic, administrative and military domains.[98] From 1831 to 1846, politics in Belgium was divided betweenLiberal andCatholic parties, along withunionist governments. Catholicism had always been the dominant religion in Belgium, yet Leopold had always refused to convert from his Lutheran faith and favoured the Liberals.[85][99] To appease to the public, he sought to maintain cordial relations with theHoly See, though Louis de Lichtervelde suggests it may have been to reassure and consolidate his own power against "the only other force" (Catholicism) which was more popular than him. Leopold also believed that the Church would act as a means of unity for Belgium, whichwas linguistically divided.[99]
Historians believe that the fall of theTheux government in April 1840 was feared by Leopold as it was it marked the first time in modern Belgian history, and under his reign, that a government had collapsed.[100] Leopold was opposed to Lebeau forming government as his party had voted againstBarthélémy de Theux de Meylandt, which caused the government's collapse. In 1846, theParty for Freedom and Progress convened to strengthen the cooperation between the executive and legislature, and as a result of new Bills passed byCharles Rogier's government, the role of the monarch was reduced and Liberals dominated politics, advocating for free trade, freedoms, liberties and secularisation.[101][102] During the second half of Leopold's reign, the Liberals remained in power. While meeting with the government, Leopold made it clear that he believed the appointment and dismissal of ministers was his prerogative under the Constitution, and demanded that he be informed in advance of all government, ministerial and administrative decisions.[103]
Throughout Leopold's reign, Belgium experienced economic and industrial progress, despite economic crises during the early decades of his reign. The period between 1845 and 1849 was particularly hard in Flanders, where harvests failed and a third of the population became dependent on poor relief, and has been described as the "worst years of Flemish history".[104] The economic situation in Flanders also increased the internal migration to Brussels and the industrial areas ofWallonia, which continued throughout the period.[104] Despite this, Leopold worked closely with the government to develop infrastructure, which he promised in his enthronement speech: "Multiple efforts will be directed towards the improvement and extension of agriculture, commerce and industry; they contribute to spreading prosperity among the various classes of inhabitants and to cementing harmony."[105] In 1842, Leopold failed to pass laws to regulate child and women labour. He wanted to ban them from working in certain industries, such as harvesting in which he believed they dominated; however, the Bill he proposed was defeated, and child labour continued to be abused.[1] For example, in 1850, the coal industry employed nearly 3300 women, 4400 boys and 1221 girls under the age of sixteen in underground labour. In agriculture, similar statistics existed with harsh working conditions and low wages. An investigation was conducted in 1853 and 1854 byÉdouard Ducpétiaux found that the average Belgian worker had to devote 65.8% of their wage to basic needs. Leopold never recognised or tended to the issue of low wages.[106]
Leopold was an early supporter of railways. Belgium's first stretch of railway, between northern Brussels andMechelen, was completed in May 1835. It was the first steam passenger railway in Continental Europe.[107] The development of railways allowed for the growth of the industry and in an 1847 speech, Leopold remarked: "Freight transport and railway revenues continue to increase at a remarkable rate. Measures are being prepared to increase them further and to introduce improvements in the operation of this important service."[108] Multiple historians attribute the development and production ofcast iron, steel, coal, glassworks and cloth weaving to Leopold's reign. Earlier in 1835, Leopold had inaugurated theNational Bank of Belgium, which solidified the 1832 creation and circulation of theBelgian franc. Leopold appeared on coinage and postage stamps, which had helped to congeal the legitimacy of his reign in the early years.[109]
Engraving of Leopold's theatrical offer in 1848 to abdicate
In 1848, protests plagued the majority of Europe. The success of economic reforms partially mitigated the effects of the economic downturn and meant that Belgium was not as badly affected as its neighbours by theRevolutions of 1848.[110] Nevertheless, in early 1848, a large number of radical publications appeared. The most serious threat of the 1848 revolutions in Belgium was posed by Belgianémigré groups. Shortly after theFrench Revolution of 1848, Belgian migrant workers living in Paris were encouraged to return to Belgium to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic. Around 6000 armed émigrés of the "Belgian Legion" attempted to cross the Belgian frontier. The first group, travelling by train, was stopped and quickly disarmed atQuiévrain on 26 March 1848.[102] The second group crossed the border on 29 March and headed for Brussels, and was confronted by Belgian troops at the hamlet ofRisquons-Tout and, during fighting, seven émigrés were killed and most of the rest were captured.[111]
In order to defuse tension, the government adopted multiple measures aimed at liberalising the country and preventing it from being attacked by revolutionary ideas of its neighbours. For example, the stamp duty on newspapers was abolished and agents who the state believed could serve as potential disturbances to public order, such asKarl Marx, were expelled from Belgium in March. Ultimately, Leopold theatrically offered his abdication, if this was the wish of the majority of his people. Historians such as Stengers andÉliane Gubin claim that it was the first time in his life that Leopold regretted not taking up the offer of the Greek throne.[112] The defeat at Risquons-Tout effectively ended the revolutionary threat to Belgium, as the situation in Belgium began to recover that summer after a good harvest, andfresh elections returned a strong Liberal majority.[111] At the end of 1848, Leopold commented on the situation: "You know this country which, I can say without false modesty, has been administered in an exemplary manner for almost 18 years. It proved itself well during the crisis and despite the terrible neighbourhood of Paris. [...] After this trial by fire, the country became very solid [...], I gained the trust of most of the Cabinets and also of the people; I intend to use it and use it to the full for the benefit of Europe."[113]
For his role in European affairs, Leopold was dubbed the "Nestor of Europe", after the wise mediator inHomer'sIliad.[114] This was also due to his connection to other monarchs. For example, Leopold's niece was Queen of the United Kingdom, his nephew was Prince Consort of the United Kingdom and his other nephew was the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He remained in close contact with his sovereign relatives, particularly Queen Victoria.[115] HistorianJean Stengers records that Leopold's intervention in European affairs was to look after Belgian interests, to look after British interests and to encourage peace to maintain the conservative order.[116] Not only did Leopold have high-level correspondence with other leaders, but he regularly travelled and made informal and state visits. Throughout his reign and particularly in the 1840s, a main goal of his was to repairFranco-British relations due to theEastern question.[116] He organised a meeting between his father-in-law, Louis Philippe I of France, and his niece, Queen Victoria, in 1843 at theChâteau d'Eu, marking the first time in thirteen years that theHouse of Orléans received a foreign monarch. The following year, Louis Philippe visited Victoria in Britain, with Leopold and Louise organising his itinerary.[117] Moreover, with the rise of Prussia to the east of Belgium, Leopold worked to maintain amicable ties with the German states. In August 1843, along with members of the British royal family, Leopold travelled toBrühl and stayed atStolzenfels Castle with the Prussian monarch and forty members of other German royalty. Notably, the Emperor of Russia,Nicholas I, did not attend despite his invitation. In 1844, perJules Van Praet, Russia and Belgiumestablished relations.[118]
The rise of Prussia as the dominating German power continued throughout the decades of Leopold's reign. The newGerman Confederation's legislature became theFrankfurt Assembly, which was the first pan-German parliament with representatives from each German state, including the German-speaking areas of the Austrian Empire.[119] Leopold's name was suggested as a potential candidate for the federal leader of the Confederation who would bear the imperial crown of Germany. Naturally, the entry of Belgium into the German Confederation was then discussed.[120] Leopold was opposed to both of these propositions as they would contravene Belgium's status as a neutral power and diminish the independence of the country. The German Confederation nonetheless soon disbanded, thoughGerman Unification would later occur after Leopold's death.[121]
When Louis Philippe was deposed in the 1848 French Revolution, Leopold remained neutral and was one of the first heads of state to recognise the newFrench Republic.[122][121] While this pleased the new French government, it came as a shock to other European nations who had admiredBelgian neutrality,[123] imposed by Article VII of theTreaty of London (1839).[124] While most historians have depicted Leopold as faithful to this, others have not, such as Belgian historian Jan Anckaer, who interprets Leopold's diplomatic efforts in theSecond Egyptian-Ottoman War in 1840[125][124] and Belgium's manufacture of arms for Russia during the Crimean War as breaches of neutrality.[124] Following theJuly Monarchy, theSecond French Empire was created, which worried the Belgian government. Immediately following the1851 French coup d'état, Leopold sent Prime MinisterHenri de Brouckère to Paris to meet the newNapoleon III to assure cordial relations.[122] Leopold saw the new regime in France as a threat and began limiting the number of French political refugees to stay on the good side of Napoleon, whom Leopold met in Calais in 1854. The following year, Leopold sent his eldest son to Paris for an exhibition as part of the official Belgian delegation.[126]
Furthermore, despite initial skirmishes at the start of his tenure, Leopold wanted to repair relations with the Netherlands.[127] In October 1859, Leopold sent his youngest son toThe Hague on a state visit, where he met with theDutch royal family. On 18 October 1861 inLiège, Leopold receivedWilliam III of the Netherlands, who returned via Belgium after meeting with Napoleon III.[128] The day before the Belgian and Dutch monarchs met, Leopold wrote to Victoria: "He will be very well received, his process is rightly appreciated here. Being received in the very country where you were Crown Prince is a little painful and you feel slightly embarrassed." The meeting was successful.[129]
When Leopold swore allegiance to the Constitution, Belgium had no colonial possessions and could not lay claim to anyDutch colonies. However, Belgium did seek to develop its industry and trade, which it saw would require establishing commercial relations with non-European countries. Leopold also believed that acquiring a colony would solve the issue of rising poverty rates, an effect of rapid industrialisation and food shortages following war with the Netherlands.[130] In attempting to set up colonies, Leopold engaged in multiple planning projects which he personally funded; however, they were all abandoned by the government. He proposed taking theIsle of Pines,Tortuga and other territories in theAntilles. Sweden made Belgium an offer to cede the island ofSaint Barthélemy, but France soon took it up. Other colonial prospects of Leopold's that resulted in failure included taking theFaroe Islands, setting up a Belgian protectorate inNew Zealand, installing a Belgian trading post inEthiopia, taking theNicobar Islands per an English shipping company's suggestion, and establishing a consortium in thePhilippines that would pay Spain at 5% interest.[131]
TheBelgian Colonisation Company was founded on 18 September 1841 and was funded by Leopold. Its objectives were to "create agricultural, industrial and commercial establishments in different states of Central America and other places" and "to establish commercial relations between these countries and Belgium".[132] The company purchased 404,666 hectares of land inSanto Tomás de Castilla (modern-dayGuatemala) granted by the Guatemalan dictatorRafael Carrera. An exploration commission was sent on 9 November 1841 in order to finalise the purchase; however, Belgian delegates soon began leaving due to unsanitary conditions. Leopold pushed for the project to continue. Until 1847, Belgium sent ships full of settlers, served prisoners and working-class men to the territory, promising a more hopeful future; however, this failed due to harsh conditions leading to a high mortality rate. In 1855, Guatemala pulled out from the deal.[133]
During theSecond Opium War, Great Britain and France sent expeditionary forces toChina, bound forBeijing in 1859. Under Leopold's eldest son, Leopold, who held an interest in theFar East, Belgium sought to involve itself by sending volunteers so that the country would economically benefit and strengthen ties with Britain and France. Leopold contacted Napoleon III, and the two agreed to Belgian involvement; however, the government stated that it would pull out if conflict were to occur.[134] In 1860, Leopold sent his youngest son, Philip, toBrazil so that he could marry one of the daughters of EmperorPedro II. Pedro subsequently gifted Philip with multiple territories for European migrants to settle on.[135] Leopold was eager for the marriage to work as it would establish a branch of his family in South America. However, Philip was unimpressed and abandoned the project.[136] By the end of Leopold's reign, Belgium still lacked colonies; however, his son would soon acquire theCongo as his own personal private property before ceding it to Belgium in 1908.[137]
Leopold with members of his family in June 1859.[b]
As a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Leopold was eager to see his family's influence rise throughout Europe. He skillfully used his family connections and marriages to protect Belgium from French ambitions and the threat of annexation by Napoleon III. Leopold supported the marriage of his nephew,Ferdinand, to thequeen of Portugal,Maria II, in 1836. Portugal had a longstanding alliance with Great Britain and with his nephew now on the Portuguese thronejure uxoris, Leopold hoped it would bring Belgium and Britain closer.[138] In 1840, Leopold's nephew, Albert, married his first cousin and Leopold's niece, Queen Victoria, thus cementing Anglo-Belgian ties.[139] In 1843, Leopold's nephew,Prince August of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, married Louise's sister,Princess Clémentine of Orléans, thus again uniting the two royal houses.[140] Though Leopold had influenced all these royal marriages, he was not always as successful. In 1846, August's brother,Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, failed to marryIsabella II of Spain.[141]
Meanwhile, in France in 1850, Louise had caught a cold while attending a ceremony commemorating her recently deceased father. Though medical experts did not seem concerned, Louise died prematurely on 11 October 1850, aged 38.[1] It was the second time Leopold was widowed and he became deeply saddened by this.[142]
For eighteen years, and more, Louise was a true friend and it is truly impossible to get an exact idea of her love and devotion. [...] It is an enormous loss, because our friendship was frankly cordial and it was never disturbed, for eighteen years, even if only for a moment.
Per Defrance, the mood in the royal court fell sombre dramatically after this.[142] Leopold and Louise's children, who were barely teenagers, suffered in the absence of their mother and were often left to nannies. Louise had personally educated her children and now tutors needed to be found. Leopold became more reclusive and distanced from his family, with it becoming normal for their only form of communication to be by letter, either in French or German.[144] Leopold found comfort in Louise's friend and his daughter's tutor, Countess Denise d'Hulst, and he attempted to father his two sons, who began regularly rebelling against him.[145]
As his children aged, Leopold was gladdened to see his eldest son and daughter marry into theHouse of Habsburg-Lorraine, who served as theEmperors of Austria and previously of theHoly Roman Empire. In 1853, Leopold's eldest son marriedMarie Henriette of Austria, a first cousin of EmperorFranz Joseph I.[146] Four years later, Leopold encouraged the matrimonial pairing of his daughter, Charlotte, withArchduke Maximilian of Austria, who was later appointed theEmperor of Mexico.[147] Additionally, Leopold's great-nephew,Edward, Prince of Wales (the future Edward VII), marriedAlexandra of Denmark in 1862 under the auspices of Leopold.[148] Edward's mother, Queen Victoria, continued Leopold's legacy of arranging royal marriages for the family, becoming nicknamed the "grandmother of Europe".[149] However, Leopold's role in Belgian diplomacy diminished in favour of the government in the later years of his reign. In 1859, he failed to convince his Cabinet to send a Belgian brigade to support Anglo-French naval troops in China, and in 1863, he played little role in negotiations concerning the purchase of the Scheldt toll.[150]
In Summer 1856, Leopold celebrated hisSilver Jubilee, celebrating 25 years of his reign and since the inauguration of the first king of the Belgians. On 21 July 1856, Leopold travelled on horseback on the same route that he had taken when he first arrived in Belgium, through Laeken and then to the Royal Palace of Brussels. His two sons also travelled with him, and he attended aTe Deum of gratitude in his honour. While Leopold had become more reclusive as his reign continued, he was delighted with his jubilee and made many appearances.[151] In the following months of the anniversary, Leopold and his sons visited each province of the country, where they stayed at each capital and attended processions, balls, banquets, Church services and factory tours. Stockmar, who was in retirement in Coburg, wrote in his diary his surprise of the use of the Dutch language during the tour.[152]
The following year, Belgium faced a political crisis when Catholic Prime MinisterPierre de Decker introduced a new Bill into Parliament which he believed would act as a unifying force between the Catholics and the Liberals. The Bill was debated over 27 parliamentary sessions, as it was deemed controversial by the shadow ministry and Opposition.[153] Protests by the public against the Bill soon broke out in the capital cities and demonstrators surrounded thePalace of the Nation. On 28 May, Leopold called in troops to calm the protests and angrily declared: "I will ride on horseback if necessary to protect the national representation; I will not allow the majority to be outraged; I will crush these scoundrels."[154] As rioting continued, Leopold suggested that the articles in the Bill be separated, but de Decker denounced him and soon abandoned it completely. Leopold sent him a letter, which was published in theMoniteur, in which he criticised the government and wrote: "It was not I who abandoned them in 1857, it was they who abandoned me. I was ready to ride a horse, I wouldn't have backed down. They left me in the presence of disorder; they reduced me to giving in to disorder and no one could understand how profound such humiliation was."[155]
On 9 November 1857, after de Decker resigned and the government fell, Rogier returned to office and formed a Liberal government, which lasted for ten years and went on to outlive Leopold. Rogier also held the position ofMinister of the Interior, with parliamentariansWalthère Frère-Orban andVictor Tesch assuming other different ministries. This new government acted by the Constitution, but took an anticlerical attitude due to the protests.[156] In 1861, the government introduced new legislation regarding scholarships, and took funding away from Catholic cemeteries as a punishment for the previous government who had done the same for atheist cemeteries.[157] Leopold was strongly against these anti-religious stances taken by Rogier's Cabinet, but remained impartial per his constitutional role as a neutral figurehead, though he did threaten to override new changes if it was made clear they were not the will of the majority. However, after 1857, Leopold's main concern for Belgium was its defence and he was glad when Antwerp was chosen as the future development site of theNational Redoubt.[158]
In 1859, a statue of Leopold was erected at the top of theCongress Column to mark his earlier Silver Jubilee.[159] On 12 June, Leopold was also delighted by the birth of his first grandson,Prince Leopold. Furthermore, in 1860, Leopold again visited each provincial capital city despite being ill and his declining health. Upon his return to Brussels in September 1860, Leopold decided to no longer preside over the Council of Ministers and to roll back on his other duties due to his aging condition. Additionally, all of Leopold's mail was now read by and responded to by Van Praet, instead of by Leopold directly.[160]
Unlike Leopold's elder son, Leopold's daughter, Charlotte, personally chose her husband of Archduke Maximilian, the younger brother of Emperor Franz Joseph I. Leopold preferred that she married his great-nephew,Peter V of Portugal, but did not oppose her decision.[161] A few weeks after their wedding, in September 1857, Maximilian was appointed Viceroy of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. During theAustro-Sardinian War, Leopold gave unwanted strategic advice to Franz Joseph, who mocked and did not follow it. When Austria lost Lombardy, Leopold advised Prussia to assemble an army on theRhine, which was seen as Leopold taking the Prussian side in theAustro-Prussian rivalry.[162]
Painting of the Belgian Legion in Mexico by the artist Charles Lahalle
In 1861, theAmerican Civil War broke out and despite Belgian neutrality, Leopold favoured theConfederate States due to theUnion's imposition of economic blockades, including the refusal to export South American goods to Europe.[163] According to historian Francis Balace, Leopold played an important role as a mediator between the United States and the rest of Europe, as well as in convincing other European states to back the South. In contrast, historian Jacques Portes has downplayed the significance of Leopold's role by painting him as an ineffective transmitter of correspondence between the two sides with little care for Belgium's impartiality.[164]
In Mexico, PresidentBenito Juárez suspended the country's payment of its foreign debt in July 1861, to the displeasure of Great Britain, France and Spain. Napoleon III took it as an opportunity tointervene in Mexico, aiming to spread Catholicism and the influence of the United States in the Americas.[165] He offered the imperial crown of Mexico to Maximilian as an apology to Austria for earlier siding with Sardinia. Much to the delight of Leopold, Maximilian accepted and left Austria with Charlotte for Mexico, arriving in Mexico City on 12 June 1864 despite armed opposition from republicans. Leopold encouraged the sending of aBelgian Legion, composed of 4000 male volunteers, to support his daughter.[165] The Legion was badly defeated by republican forces at theBattle of Tacámbaro in April 1865, but was victorious in July under the command of Lieutenant ColonelAlfred van der Smissen.[166] When the American Civil War ended, the United States government signalled its support for Juárez.[165] Maximilian and Charlotte asked Leopold for some advice, but the helpless aging monarch merely replied, "God bless you, I can no longer help you."[167] The strong Mexican resistance and failure to push back against it led to Napoleon III abandoning Mexico on 15 January 1866. Charlotte escaped Mexico in July to get assistance from European states, who ignored her and left Maximilian, who refused to abdicate and was later executed on 18 June 1867.[165][168]
Until the age of 70, Leopold enjoyed relatively good health. However, in 1861, he faced several problems that severely affected him. His sister, Princess Victoria, died in March and his great-nephew, Peter V, aged 24, died of typhoid fever in November, only weeks before his brother,Infante João, Duke of Beja, also died.[169] Additionally, his nephew, Albert, died in December. Leopold attended his funeral to support his niece, Queen Victoria, and during this time suffered from kidney stones. Leopold underwent alithotripsy in the following March and many more in the subsequent months. Despite his health issues, Leopold was still able to engage in leisure activities, such as hunting; however, he suffered a stroke at the beginning of 1865. His health continued to decline for the remainder of the year.[170]
Leopold's funeral cortege in Brussels on 16 December 1865
On 23 November 1865, Leopold was urgently brought back from theRoyal Château of Ardenne to Laeken due to health issues. He signed multiple royal decrees to hide his declining health, which was leaked to the public by theMoniteur on 2 December. Confined to his bed, Leopold summoned a pianist to play him the overture toTannhäuser, as he was diagnosed withdysentery and had mobility struggles. On 9 December, Leopold was expected to die; however, he survived the night, and he was visited by his daughter-in-law,Marie Henriette of Austria, who knelt by his side and exchanged words with him. She convinced him to allow his family to visit, which they swiftly did, along with his personal chaplain, Pastor Frederick William Becker. Leopold said in their presence, "Forgive me, my God, forgive me." Holding his daughter-in-law's hand, Leopold died on 10 December 1865 at 11:45 am at the age of 74.[171] He was succeeded by his 30-year-old son, Leopold II.[90]
The Equestrian Statue of Leopold I in Antwerp was built in 1872Leopold's coat of arms
Belgian National Day is celebrated annually to mark the anniversary of Leopold's pledge to the Constitution, oath and installation as King of the Belgians.[174] Several monuments have been dedicated in Leopold's honour. TheMonument to the Dynasty was erected in Brussels at the initiative of Leopold II.[175] Other monuments built include his statue on top of the Congress Column in 1859,[176] a monument inSt George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, at the request of Queen Victoria in 1867,[177] the Equestrian Statue of Leopold I in Leopold Square in Antwerp in 1872,[178] the Monument to Leopold I inMons in 1877,[179] the Monument to Leopold I in the Park of Laeken in 1880,[180] the Equestrian Statue of Leopold I inOstend in 1901,[181] and the Monument to Leopold I inLa Panne in 1958.[182] Additionally, several Belgian naval vessels have been named in his honour, including theLeopold I, a frigate acquired by Belgium in 2007. Hismonogram features on the flag of the Flemish town ofLeopoldsburg. His likeness has also appeared on postage stamps and commemorative coins issued since his death.[176]
^Peltzer, Marina (1967).The Career of Leopold, Prince of Saxe-Coburg in the Russian Army. Edition of Letters and Documents from the USSR Government Archives. pp. 72–73.
^Bauer, K. (1876–1877),Aus meinem Bühnenleben. Erinnerungen von Karoline Bauer (in German), Berlin{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Von Stockmar, E. (1873),Denkwürdigkeiten aus den Papiere des Freihernn Christian Friedrich von Stockmar (in German), Brunswick{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link);Von Wangenheim, R. (1996),Baron Stockmar. Eine coburgisch-englische Geschichte (in German), Coburg{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Van Hooydonk, Eric (2006)."Chapter 15". In Chircop, Aldo E.; Lindén, O. (eds.).Places of Refuge: The Belgian Experience. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff. p. 417.ISBN9789004149526.
^van den Abeelen, Georges (1981).Portraits of Kings; 150 Years of Constitutional Monarchy. Brussels. p. 44.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Goddyn, Reinout (2002).De kinderen van de koning: Alle erfgenamen van Leopold I (in Dutch). House of Books. p. 96.
^abCapron, Victor (2006).Sur les traces d'Arcadie Claret: le Grand Amour de Léopold Ier (in French). Brussels.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Genealogisches Handbuch des Adels [Genealogical Handbook of the Nobility]. Freiherrlichen Häuser (in German). Vol. Band XXI. C. A. Starke. 1999. pp. 101–103.
^abDeneckere, Gita (1997). Janssens, Gustaaf; Strengers, Jean (eds.).New Perspectives on Leopold I and Leopold II. Brussels: Goffinet Archives Fund. p. 129.
^Van Den Wijngaert, Mark; Brants, Dana; Beullens, Lieve (2002).Power and Monarchy; Belgium and Its Kings (in French). Translated by Vignaux, Anne-Laure. Brussels: La Renaissance du livre. p. 171.ISBN978-2-87415-157-6.
^Provoost, Guido (1981).The Monarchy and Domestic Political Issues; 150 Years of Constitutional Monarchy. Brussels. p. 109.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Anckaer, Jan (2013). "3".Small power diplomacy and commerce. Belgium and the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Leopold I, 1831–1865. Istanbul: The Isis Press.ISBN978-9754284898.
^Duchesne, Albert (1965).Revue internationale d'histoire militaire (in French). Vol. 23. Brussels. p. 480.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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Conte Corti, Egon Caesar (1922).Leopold I. von Belgien. Sein Weltgebäude Koburger Familienmacht (in German). Vienna: Rikola Verlag.
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Defrance, Olivier (2025).Un ami fidèle : Lettres de Léopold de Saxe-Cobourg à Louise Cochelet 1811-1819 (in French). Brussels: Fondation Roi Baudouin.ISBN978-9-051302189.
de Lichtervelde, Louis (1929).Léopold Ier et la formation de la Belgique contemporaine (in French). Brussels: Dewit.OCLC12762995.
Driault, Édouard; Lhéritier, Michel (1926).Histoire diplomatique de la Grèce de 1821 à nos jours. Paris: PUF.OCLC3937796.
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