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 Flag of Polish Lemkos[1] | |
_..jpg) Members of the folk group Osławianie fromMokre in original Lemko highlander folk costumes | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| 75,228 700,000 (ancestry)[2] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 Slovakia | 63,556 (2021)[a][3] 100,000 (ancestry)[2] |
 Poland | 11,000 (2011)[4] 100,000 (ancestry)[2] |
 Ukraine | 672 (census 2001)[5] 350,000 (ancestry)[2] |
| North America | 150,000 (ancestry)[2] |
| Post-Yugoslavia states | 50,000 (ancestry)[2] |
| Languages | |
| Rusyn,Slovak,Polish,Ukrainian (Lemko dialect) | |
| Religion | |
| PredominantlyUkrainian Greek Catholic orEastern Orthodox, withRoman Catholic minorities | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Ukrainians,Boykos,Hutsuls,Rusyns | |
Lemkos (Rusyn:лeмкы,romanized: lemkŷ;Polish:Łemkowie;Ukrainian:лемки,romanized: lemky;Slovak:Lemkovia) are anethnic group inhabiting theLemko Region (Rusyn:Лемковина,romanized: Lemkovyna;Ukrainian:Лемківщина,romanized: Lemkivshchyna) ofCarpathian Rus', an ethnographic region in theCarpathian Mountains andfoothills spanningUkraine,Slovakia, andPoland.
Lemkos are often considered to be a sub-group ofRusyns.[6][7] Members of these groups have historically also been given other designations, such asVerkhovyntsi ("highlanders"). Among people of the Carpathian highlands, communities speaking the same dialect will identify with a different ethnic label when crossing borders due to the influence of state-sponsored education and media. As well, the same community may switch its preferred identification over time. In Slovakia, between the 1991 and 2001 censuses, the number of people identifying as "Ukrainian" declined by 2,467 (an 18.6% decrease), while those reporting Rusyn as their national identity increased by 7,004 people (a 40.6% increase). It is not clear, however, if this refers to the same individuals switching their identification, more young first-time respondents choosing Rusyn, or migration.[8]
The spoken language of the Lemkos, which has a code ofrue under ISO 639-3, has been variously described as a language in its own right,a dialect ofUkrainian,[9] or a dialect ofRusyn. In Ukraine, almost all Lemkos speak both Lemko and standard Ukrainian (according to the2001 Ukrainian Census).[5] Ukraine itself categorizes Lemkos as an ethnic subgroup of Ukrainians and not as a separate ethnicity.[10]
In the Polish census of 2011[11] 10,531 citizens declared Lemko nationality (compared to 51,001 declarations of Ukrainian identity, 46,787 Belarusian identity and 13,046 Russian identity). 5,612 people declared only Lemko nationality, 3,621 declared double national identity — Lemko-Polish, and 1,088 declared double identity Lemko-Ukrainian.[4] I.D. Liubchyk (І.Д.Любчик) cites the number of around 700 thousand people with Lemko ancestry in the world, out of which 350 thousand are in Ukraine, 150 thousand in North America, 100 thousand in Poland, 100 thousand in Slovakia, and 50 thousand in post-Yugoslavia states.[12] During the2001 Ukrainian census, Lemko identity was not researched (option not available in survey).[13]
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The ethnonymLemko derives from the wordlem (Rusyn:лем,lit. 'only').[14] The term is thought to have first originated as a nickname for users of the wordlem in the borderlands between the Lemko andBoyko regions: the easternmost extent of usage of the word on the north side of the Carpathians.[15] (On the south side of the Carpathians, the analogous nickname,lemak, was used in thelem-lyšisogloss area.)[16] The ethnonym eventually entered use in academia and was first recorded in print with the 1834 publication ofGrammatik der ruthenischen oder klein russischen Sprache in Galizien (lit. 'Grammar of Ruthenian or Little Russian Language in Galicia') by Yosyp Levytsky.
As an endonym,Lemko only entered wider use in the early 20th century.[17][18] Prior to adopting the name, Lemkos would refer to themselves asRusyns (Rusyn:Русины,romanized: Rusynŷ) orRusnaks (Rusyn:Руснaкы, Руснаци,romanized: Rusnakŷ, Rusnacy).[18][19] By the interwar period the popularity ofLemko as an endonym had grown, and appeared in periodicals such asLemko andNaš Lemko.[20]
Polish authorities also played a hand in popular adoption of the term leading up to World War II. Concerned by the potential for Ukrainian nationalism in the region, authorities sought to encourage Rusyn identity to counter it. This led to promotion of the exaggerated historicity of Lemkos as a distinctive ethnographic group and of their corresponding ethnonym.[21]
In the aftermath of WWII,Lemko finally supplantedRusyn andRusnak as the term of choice for the Rusyns on the north face of the Carpathians in Poland.[20]
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The Lemkos' homeland is commonly referred to as theLemko Region (Rusyn:Лeмкoвина,romanized: Lemkovyna;Ukrainian:Лeмкiвщина,romanized: Lemkivshchyna;Polish:Łemkowszczyzna). Up until 1945, this included the area from thePoprad River in the west to the valley ofOslawa River in the east, areas situated primarily in present-dayPoland, in theLesser Poland andSubcarpathian Voivodeships (provinces). This part of the Carpathian mountains is mostlydeforested, which allowed for anagrarian economy, alongside such traditional occupations asox grazing and sheep herding.
The Lemko region became part of Poland inmedieval Piast times. Lemkos were made part of the Austrian province ofGalicia in 1772.[22] This area was part of theAustro-Hungarian Empire until its dissolution in 1918, at which point theLemko-Rusyn Republic (Ruska Lemkivska) declared its independence. Independence did not last long however, and the republic was incorporated into Poland in 1920.
As a result of the forcible deportation of Ukrainians from Poland to the Soviet Union after World War II, the majority of Lemkos in Poland were either resettled from their historic homeland to the prеviously Germanterritories in the North-Western region of Poland or to theUkrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.[23] Only those Lemkos living thePrešov Region in present-daySlovakia continue to live on their ancestral lands, with the exception of some Lemkos who resettled in their homeland in the late 1950s and afterward. Lemkos are/were neighbours withSlovaks,Carpathian Germans andLachy sądeckie (Poles) to the west,Pogorzans (Poles) andDolinians (aRusyn subgroup) to the north,Boykos (aUkrainians subgroup) to the east, andSlovaks to the south.
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Several hypotheses account for the origin of the Lemkos, however, like all Rusyns, they most probably have a diverseethnogenetic origin. The Lemkos (and other Carpatho-Rusyns) are considered to be descendants of the medievalWhite Croats,[24][25][26][27][28][29][30] affected by the migration of Rusyn-influencedSlovaks,[30] and theVlach/Romanian migrations in the 14th and 15th centuries.[24][30][31]
The Lemko Region became part of Poland inthe time of the medieval Piast dynasty but was frequently disputed with the neighbouring Rus', as can be seen by taking the town ofSanok as an example: In 981CEVladimir I of Kiev invaded the area and took it over from Poland.
In 1018 it returned to Poland, in 1031 it went back to Rus', and in 1340Casimir III of Poland recovered it for Poland. Thegord of Sanok is mentioned for the first time inHypatian Codex in 1150.Lemkos (or their progenitors) became anethnic minority as part of theAustrian province ofGalicia in 1772.[22] Massemigration from this territory to the Western hemisphere for economic reasons began in the late 19th century.
Prior toWorld War I, Lemkos began to develop conflicting national identities. While some adoptedthe Ukrainian nationality, others favored the concept of theAll-Russian nation (the so-called "Old Ruthenian" identity).[32] As theGreek Catholic Church was keen on promoting the Ukrainian identity, some of the pro-Russian Lemkos began converting to theOrthodoxy.[33] One of the most notable Orthodoxy converts was Saint Maxim Sandovich, a Lemko peasant who, after a brief experience as a Greek Catholic monk, converted to Orthodoxy, became a priest and began spreading Orthodoxy in the region.[34]
TheAustro-Hungarian Empire was highly suspicious of the pro-Russian Lemkos, as well of Sandovich himself. This led to a series of imprisonments before the breakout of World War I, including one of Sandovich himself.[35] After the war broke out, Sandovich was imprisoned again, and executed without trial.[36]In 1914, the Austro-Hungarian authorities created theThalerhof internment camp, where they imprisoned Lemkos suspected of spying for theRussian Empire. During the war, 1767 people died in the Thalerhof camp.
In the immediate aftermath World War I, Lemkos founded two short-lived republics, theLemko-Rusyn Republic in the west of Galicia, which had arussophile orientation, as well as attempted to merge withCzechoslovakia and theKomancza Republic, with a Ukrainophilic orientation, which attempted to merge withWest Ukrainian People's Republic.
During the time of theSecond Polish Republic, the identity conflict between the Lemkos intensified.[37] In 1926, following a conflict with their local Greek Catholic priest, the Lemko people of the villageTylawa underwent a massive conversion to Orthodoxy.[38] This event, known as theTylawa schism[39] began a wave of mass conversions in the region, during which many villages completely converted to Orthodoxy, while some remained either loyal to Eastern Catholicism or divided between the two religions.[40] As theCatholic Church was unwilling to hand over their temples to the Orthodox Church, in many convertite villages newchurches had to be built.[41]
It is estimated that about 130,000 to 140,000 Lemkos were living in the Polish part of theLemko Region in 1939. Depopulation of these lands occurred during theforced resettlement, initially to theSoviet Union (about 90,000 people) and later to Poland'snewly acquired western lands (about 35,000) in theOperation Vistula campaign of the late 1940s. This action was astate ordered removal of the civilian population, in acounter-insurgency operation to remove potential support forguerrilla war being waged by theUkrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) in south-eastern Poland.
Some 5,000 Lemko families returned to their home regions in Poland between 1957 and 1958,[42] (they were officially granted the right to return in 1956), the Lemko population in the Polish section of Lemkivschyna only numbers around 10,000–15,000 today. Some 50,000 Lemkos live in the western and northern parts of Poland, where they were sent to populate formerGerman villages in areas ceded to Poland. Among those, 5,863 people identified themselves as Lemko in the 2002 census. However, 60,000 ethnic Lemkos may reside in Poland today. Within the Lemko Region, Lemkos live in the villages ofŁosie,Krynica-Zdrój,Nowica,Zdynia,Gładyszów,Hańczowa,Zyndranowa,Uście Gorlickie,Bartne,Binczarowa andBielanka. Additional populations can be found inMokre,Szczawne,Kulaszne,Rzepedź,Turzańsk,Komańcza,Sanok,Nowy Sącz, andGorlice.
In 1968 anopen-air museum dedicated to Lemko culture was opened inZyndranowa. Additionally, aLemko festival is held annually inZdynia.
In Ukraine several public initiatives have been founded in order to support and popularize Lemko culture and history, among them the all-Ukrainian Lemkivshchyna society, created in 2001, and the Moloda Lemkivshchyna ("Young Lemkivshchyna") youth organization established in 2008 inLviv. Lemko festivals have been organized inZymna Voda, Volia Yakubova nearDrohobych, nearMonastyryska and in Nahirne nearSambir. Lemko youth activists in Ukraine organize summer camps and popularize notable personalities of Lemko origin.[43]
Festivals of Lemko culture also take place inSvidník,Slovakia, and inBentinck Township, Ontario.[43]
The Lemkos have faced severe persecution in the 20th century, including mass deportations. A major example wasOperation Vistula in 1947, when Poland’s communist regime, with Moscow’s tacit backing, forcibly resettled the Lemko people from their ancestral homes in the Carpathian region. Approximately 30,000 Lemkos were brutally deported in 1947 as part of Operation "Wisła" (Vistula), an effort to remove Ukrainian and Lemko populations from southeastern Poland and suppress the Ukrainian insurgency. This ethnic cleansing scattered Lemkos to distant areas (many were sent to Poland’s western territories), destroying their communities. Earlier, under a 1945 Polish-Soviet agreement, most Lemkos had already been compelled to leave for Soviet Ukraine, and by mid-1946 around 70–80% of Lemko families were uprooted from Poland. Those remaining were then caught in Operation Vistula’s dragnet the following year.[citation needed]
During theRusso-Ukrainian War, the Lemko-populated villages of Peremozhne,Luhansk Oblast,Zvanivka inDonetsk Oblast were occupied by Russian troops, leading to deaths of some of their inhabitants and destroying objects of Lemko cultural heritage.[43]
An important aspect of Lemko culture is their deep commitment toByzantine Christianity which was introduced to the Eastern Slavs from Byzantium via Moravia through the efforts ofSaints Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century. Originally the Lemkos adhered to Orthodoxy, but in order to avoid latinization, directly entered intoUnion of Brest with the Roman Catholic Church in the 17th century.[citation needed]
Most Lemkos today areEastern rite or Byzantine-rite Catholics. In Poland they belong to theUkrainian Greek Catholic Church with aRoman Catholic minority, or to theRuthenian Catholic Church (see alsoSlovak Greek Catholic Church) in Slovakia. A substantial number belong to theEastern Orthodox Church. Through the efforts of the martyred priest FatherMaxim Sandovich (canonized by the Polish Orthodox Church in the 1990s), in the early 20th century, Eastern Orthodoxy was reintroduced to many Lemko areas which had accepted the Union of Brest centuries before.[citation needed]
The distinctive wooden architectural style of the Lemko churches is to place the highestcupola of the church building at the entrance to the church, with the roof sloping downward toward thesanctuary as opposed to their neighbouring sub-ethnic groups such as the Boykos who place the highest cupola in the middle. Both groups styles have three cupola with numerouseaves.[citation needed]
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The Slavic dialects of Central Europe form (or formed, prior to standardization) adialect continuum with few distinct boundaries between neighbouring varieties. However the question of language boundaries has become acontroversial political issue since the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and later the Soviet Union into "nation states", each having only one official language. The Lemko dialects share many features with other Carpathian ones, which are often grouped together as theRusyn language by outside linguists.[44][45]
The Lemko dialect has been influenced greatly by the languages spoken by geographically neighboring peoples and ruling elites, so much so that some consider it a separate entity.[46][better source needed]—Lemko speech includes some patterns matching those of the surroundingPolish andSlovak languages.[citation needed]
Metodyj Trochanovskij developed a Lemko Primer (Bukvar: Perša knyžečka dlja narodnŷch škol, 1935) and a First Reader (Druha knyžečka dlja narodnŷch škol, 1936) for use in schools in the Lemko-speaking area ofPoland.[47] In 1934, Lemko was introduced as the language of instruction in schools in the Lemko region. The pupils were taught from textbooks prepared by Trochanovskij and published by the State Publishing House. However, shortly before the outbreak of World War II Polish authorities replaced them with Ukrainian texts.[48] Important fieldwork on the Lemko dialect was carried out by the Polish linguistZdzisław Stieber before their dispersal.
According to theCentral Statistical Office of Poland, in the school year 2010–2011, Lemko was taught as a first language in twenty primary schools and interschool groups, and ten schools and interschool groups at junior high level, with 188 students attending classes.[49]
In the late 20th century, some Lemkos/Rusyns, mainly emigres from the region of the southern slopes of the Carpathians in modern-day Slovakia, began codifying a standardgrammar for the Lemko dialect, which was presented on the 27 January 1995 in Prešov, Slovakia. In 2013 the famous novelThe Little Prince was translated into Lemko by Petro Krynyckij.[50]
Nikolai Gogol's short storyThe Terrible Vengeance ends atKriváň, now inSlovakia and pictured on the Slovakeuro, in the heart of theLemko Region in thePrešov Region.Avram Davidson makes several references to the Lemko people in his stories.[51] Anna Bibko, mother-in-law of the protagonist ofAll Shall Be Well; and All Shall Be Well; and All Manner of Things Shall Be Well,[52] is a Lemko[53] "guided by her senses of traditionalism and grievance, not necessarily in that order".[54]
In the critically acclaimed movieThe Deer Hunter the wedding reception scene was filmed in Lemko Hall in theTremont neighborhood ofCleveland,Ohio, which had a significant immigrant population of Lemkos at one time.[55] The three main characters’ surnames, however, appear to be Russian, possibly Polish and Ukrainian (Michael "Mike" Vronsky, from PolishWroński, Steven Pushkov, and Nikonar "Nick" Chevotarevich) and the wedding was filmed insideSt. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral, which is also located in Tremont.
_and_Przemy%25C5%259Bl_area_Ukrainians_in_original_goral_folk-costumes..jpg)
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)By the early twentieth century the Rusyns living on the northern slopes of the Carpathians had given up their traditional ethnonym,Rusnak, for the nameLemko.
Scholars and the intelligentsia began to use the name Lemko for the western groups of Ukrainian highlanders in the mid-19th century, and by the end of the century some Lemkos had accepted the name.
Самі ж лемки називали себе "русинами", або "руснаками".[The Lemkos called themselves "Rusyns", or "Rusnaks".]
The purpose of this somewhat extended discussion of early history is to emphasize the complex origins of the Carpatho-Rusyns. They were not, as is often asserted, exclusively associated with Kievan Rus', from which it is said their name Rusyn derives. Rather, the ancestors of the present-day Carpatho-Rusyns are descendants of: (1) early Slavic peoples who came to the Danubian Basin with the Huns; (2) the White Croats; (3) the Rusyns of Galicia and Podolia; and (4) the Vlachs of Transylvania.
In the opinion of some scholars, the ancestors of the Lemkos were the White Croatians, who settled the Carpathian region between the seventh and tenth centuries.
Сформировались к 17 в. на основе потомков историч. хорватов и укр. переселенцев (в т. ч. пленных запорожских казаков) при влиянии вост.
The Lemkos an ethnic group inhabiting the Eastern Carpathians, between the River of Poprad to the west and the rivers of Oslava and Laborec to the east. The ethnic shape of the Lemko territory was affected by the Wallachian colonization in 14th-16th centuries, the influx of a Rusyn-influenced Slovak population and the settlement of a Slavic tribe called the White Croats, who had inhabited this part of the Carpathians since the 5th century.
The prevailing religion among Lemkos and Boykos, who are the representatives of the Vlach minority in Poland, Slovakia and Ukraine, includes the Orthodox faith and then the Greek Catholic Church ... Hutsuls, who inhabit the south-west of Ukraine (Chornohora) and the north of Romania, are mostly Orthodox and, to a much lesser extent, Greek Catholics
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Lemkovarna, the land of the Lemkos, those Slavs forgotten by everyone save themselves
(You could be forgiven for thinking Wodicka has made the Lemkos up. He hasn't.)
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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