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Leco language

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Endangered language of Bolivia
Not to be confused withLeko languages.
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Leco
Leko, Rik’a
Burua
Native toBolivia
RegionLa Paz Department (Bolivia): east ofLake Titicaca
Ethnicity2,800Leco (2001)[1]
Native speakers
20 (2012)[1][2]
Official status
Official language in
Bolivia
Language codes
ISO 639-3lec
Glottologleco1242
ELPLeco
  Leco

Leco, also written asLeko, is alanguage isolate that, though long reported to be extinct, is spoken by 20–40 individuals in areas east ofLake Titicaca,Bolivia. TheLeco ethnic population was 13,527 in 2012.[5]

Classification

[edit]

Although Leco is generally considered to be alanguage isolate, Kaufman (1994: 64) groups Leco together with theSechura–Catacao languages as part of a proposedMacro-Lecoan family.[6] It has also been suggested that Leco might be grouped with the extinctPuquina languages spoken in the south shore ofLake Titicaca.[7][8]

Language contact

[edit]

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with theKulle,Omurano,Taushiro,Urarina,Arawak,Cholon-Hibito,Jaqi, andQuechua language families due to contact.[9]

Background

[edit]

History

[edit]

Apart from some brief lists of vocabulary, the main document for which Leco is known is a Christian doctrine compiled by the missionary Andrés Herrero at the beginning of the 19th century. That doctrine was published in 1905 by Lafone Quevedo, who used it as a source to make a grammatical description of the language. That work was virtually the only available document about Leco, until the linguist Simon van de Kerke (1994) located some speakers of the language and compiled some additional facts which enlarged the analysis of Quevedo.

Use and description

[edit]

In Grimes (1988), Leco is classified as alanguage isolate and is considered extinct. However, Montaño Aragón (1987) found some speakers of the language in the region ofAtén and inApolo, La Paz, inFranz Tamayo Province in theBolivian department ofLa Paz, along Mapiri River inLarecaja Province (situated also in the department of La Paz).

Some speakers were relocated by van de Kerke (1994–97). These speakers, mostly men, were older than 50 years and had not habitually used the language since a long time before that. Van de Kerke relates that the speakers do not feel sufficiently secure to conduct a conversation spontaneously in Leco.

Phonology

[edit]

In regard to the phonology of Leco, one can point out the following (based on van de Kerke, 2009: 289–291).

Leco has six vowel phonemes: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/ and /ɨ/. The opposition among the first five vowels is distinguished in the data, but the opposition between /e/ and /ɨ/ is found only in a limited number of words, as for examplepele 'balsa' andpèlè 'name of plant'.

Consonants
BilabialAlveolarPost-
alveolar		VelarGlottal
plainsibilant
Nasalmnŋ
Plosive/
Affricate		voicelessptt͡st͡ʃk
aspiratedpʰtʰkʰ
ejectivepʼtʼt͡ʃʼkʼ
voicedbd
Fricativevoicelesssh
voicedz
Approximantljw
Flapɾ

Morphology

[edit]

In regard to the morphological characteristics of Leco, one can point out the following (van de Kerke, 2009: 297–313).

  • Leco is a highlyagglutinative language and it uses predominantlysuffixes.
  • In regard to morphology of nouns, nouns have inflection for number, by means of the pluralizing suffix-aya, as inchoswai-tha-aya [woman-DIM-PL] 'little women', and inflection for case, as for example the genitive-moki, which is used with alienable entities likekuchi 'dog' inyo-moki kuchi [1SG-GEN] 'my dog'; the dative-(i)ki, which indicates direction or goal, as in (1); the locative-ra or-te, which marks a locative complement or a directional locative, as in (2); the ablative-rep / -bet, which indicates the locative origin, as in (3), etc.
(1)

seneng-ki

all-DAT

hu-ku-ate

3PL-dar-PAS.1

dulsi

candy

seneng-ki hu-ku-ate dulsi

all-DAT 3PL-dar-PAS.1 candy

‘To all I gave a candy.’

(2)

u

what

trabajo-ra

work-LOC

chera

we

abon-da-no-ne

find-FUT-NML-INT

lamka-sich-ne

work-INF-TOP

u trabajo-ra chera abon-da-no-ne lamka-sich-ne

what work-LOC we find-FUT-NML-INT work-INF-TOP

‘In what work are we going to find work (in the town)?’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

(3)

lilwo

grasshopper

ubus-no-te

come out-NML-DCL

lal-rep/lal wara-rep

earth-ABL/earth interior-ABL

lilwo ubus-no-te {lal-rep/lal wara-rep}

grasshopper {come out-NML-DCL} {earth-ABL/earth interior-ABL}

‘The grasshopper comes out from the earth / from within the earth.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

  • Nouns can be combined, furthermore, with a set of derivative suffixes, as, for example, the diminutive-tha, which besides being combined with substantivees, as inwon-tha [house-DIM] 'little house', is combined also with adjectives, as is seen in (4). Another derivative suffix which affects nouns is the 'delimitative'-beka, which expresses the idea of 'no more', 'only', as is seen in (5). Leco has also deverbative derivative suffixes (which derive nouns from verbs), as, for example, the infinitivizer-sich in (6), which derives an infinitive form which functions as the subject of a sentence; and the agentive-no, which form derived nouns which express an agentive, such aslamas-no [work-AG] 'worker'.
(4)

wesra

Guanay

nos-tha-te

far-DIM-DCL

wesra nos-tha-te

Guanay far-DIM-DCL

‘Guanay is a little far.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

(5)

yo-phos-beka

1SG-daughter-DEL

ho-ra

this-LOC

t’e-no-te

live-NML-DCL

yo-phos-beka ho-ra t’e-no-te

1SG-daughter-DEL this-LOC live-NML-DCL

‘My daughter no longer lives here.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

(6)

lamka-sich

work-INF

yu-gustas-in-te

1.O-please-NEG-DCL

lamka-sich yu-gustas-in-te

work-INF 1.O-please-NEG-DCL

‘Working does not please me.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

  • In regard to verbal morphology, verbs have inflection of person, which is formed by means of suffixes which mark the person of the subject and prefixes which mark the object, as is shown in (7).
(7)

ya-ache-ki

1SG-father-GEN

yo-moki

1SG-GEN

aycha

meat

yin-k’o-a-ka-te

1.BEN-eat-PF-AUX-DCL

ya-ache-ki yo-moki aycha yin-k’o-a-ka-te

1SG-father-GEN 1SG-GEN meat 1.BEN-eat-PF-AUX-DCL

‘My father has eaten the meat for me.’ (I was not able to eat any more) Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

  • As is seen in Figure 2, besides inflection for person, the verb in Leco can be combined with a series of inflectional suffixes (which mark, for example, distinctions of aspectual-temporal type). By way of example, (8) shows the use of the suffix of indirect knowledge (CID)-mono, which is combined with the verbmoch 'say' from which it has been derived.
Figure 2: Inflection of the verb
Verbal rootPROGNEGNML/N/ADJPLCIDAUXPASDCL/INTPerson
-o
Adj/N-t-m/-n
-aya-mono-ka-taah
V-cha-in-no-ne-am/-an
-ir-a-no(h)
-ich-s
(8)

era

I

fuerza-hote-to:

strength-POS-PRS.1

ya-ache-ki-ka

1SG-father-GEN-COMP

mo-no-mono-taah-te

say-NML-CID-PAS-DCL

era fuerza-hote-to: ya-ache-ki-ka mo-no-mono-taah-te

I strength-POS-PRS.1 1SG-father-GEN-COMP say-NML-CID-PAS-DCL

‘It is said that he said "I have strength like my father".’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

  • In regard to the category of mood, in Leco one uses suffixes like-kama 'power',-bibi 'almost', among others, to indicate a possible event, as is seen in (9). Leco has, besides, two forms of imperative of the second person, one directed to only one person and another directed to various persons, as is seen in (10a) and (10b).
(9)

chika

very

es-cha-no-te

rain-PRS-NML-DCL

lamkas-in-kama-te-am

work-NEG-work-DCL-PL.1

chika es-cha-no-te lamkas-in-kama-te-am

very rain-PRS-NML-DCL work-NEG-work-DCL-PL.1

‘It is raining heavily; we can not work.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

(10a)

iya

you (singular)

ta

maize

bal-a

plant-IMP

iya ta bal-a

{you (singular)}maize plant-IMP

‘Plant maize (corn)!’

(10b)

heka

you (singular)

ta

maize

bal-noku

plant-IMP.PL

heka ta bal-noku

{you (singular)} maize plant-IMP.PL

‘(You [plural]) plant maize (corn)!’

(11)

yo-moki

1-GEN

warsuch

trousers

tiltil-hi-no-te

undone-CMPL-NML-DCL

yo-moki warsuch tiltil-hi-no-te

1-GEN trousers undone-CMPL-NML-DCL

‘My trousers have been completely broken.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

(12)

wotha

hill

wonon-wari-no-te

caminar-subir.por.tierra-NML-DCL

wotha wonon-wari-no-te

hill caminar-subir.por.tierra-NML-DCL

‘He/she is walking up the hill.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

(13)

yobas-aya

man-PL

yanapas-mo-no-aya-te

help-REC-NML-PL-DCL

dihwo

peanut

bal-ich-ki

plant-INF-DAT

yobas-aya yanapas-mo-no-aya-te dihwo bal-ich-ki

man-PL help-REC-NML-PL-DCL peanut plant-INF-DAT

‘The men are helping each other to plant peanuts.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

(14)

o-botha-tha-ki

2-brother-DIM-DAT

do-ko-ki-a

3.O-take-CAUS-IMP

o-botha-tha-ki do-ko-ki-a

2-brother-DIM-DAT 3.O-take-CAUS-IMP

‘Make him take your (singular) little brother!’

In Leco, one sees productive processes of reduplication. With substantives, reduplication can be interpreted as 'a heap/much of', with adjectives, 'a high degree of'; with verbs the interpretation is very diverse and not always transparent; thus we have the reduplicate verbtiltilkach 'to be undone', derived fromtiltil 'undone', which expresses a state or process, for which reason it is combined also with the auxiliarykach 'to be'.

Speech

[edit]

In regard to the characteristics of spoken Leco, one can point out the following:

  • As van de Kerke (2009: 315) points out, the order of the constituents is not fixed, although, in general, the subject takes the first position, especially if it involves a topicalized element. Besides, the object often precedes the verb, as is seen in (15):
(15)

hino

this

yobas-ne

man-TOP

palanta

platano

soh-cha-no-te

look at-PR-NML-DCL

moki-a

GEN-3

choswai-ki

wife-DAT

hino yobas-nepalantasoh-cha-no-te moki-a choswai-ki

this man-TOP platano {look at-PR-NML-DCL} GEN-3 wife-DAT

‘This man is searching for platano for his wife (of another).’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

  • Leco is apro-drop language; this means that an explicit pronominal subject is not required, although this can appear as in (16) (chera 'we'):
(16)

chera

we

du-kama-tean

speak-can-1PL

Burua

Leko

da-in-tean

want-NEG-1PL

du-ch

speak-INF

chera du-kama-tean Burua da-in-tean du-ch

we speak-can-1PL Leko want-NEG-1PL speak-INF

'We can speak Leco, but we do not want to speak it.

(17)

aycha

meat

ne-no-te

exist-NML-DCL

aycha ne-no-te

meat exist-NML-DCL

‘There is meat!’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

(18)

wesra

Guanay

nos

far

na-in-tha-te

be-NEG-DIM-DCL

wesra nos na-in-tha-te

Guanay far be-NEG-DIM-DCL

‘Guanay is very near.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

(19a)

sok’och

food

da-no-ne

want-NML-INT

iya-n

you.SG-INT

sok’och da-no-ne iya-n

food want-NML-INT you.SG-INT

‘Do you (singular) want to eat?’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

(19b)

ha-ne

who-INT

busa-cha-no-n

arrive-PRS-NML-INT

ha-ne busa-cha-no-n

who-INT arrive-PRS-NML-INT

‘Who is arriving?’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

  • In regard to compound speech, diverse types are also distinguished: juxtaposed speech, as (20), coordinate speech, as (21), and subordinate speech (causal, concessive, temporal, conditional, consecutive), as (22):
(20)

on

that

chelas-no

become sick-NML

yobas-ne

man-TOP

k’o-in-te

eat-NML-DCL

wet-ra-no-te

die-FUT-DCL

on chelas-no yobas-ne k’o-in-te wet-ra-no-te

that {become sick-NML} man-TOP eat-NML-DCL die-FUT-DCL

‘That sick man is not eating; he is going to die.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

(21)

on

that

chelas-no

become sick-NML

k’o-in-te

eat-NML-DCL

no

not

ko-in-te

drink-NML-DCL

wet-ra-no-te

die-FUT-DCL

on chelas-no k’o-in-teno ko-in-te wet-ra-no-te

that {become sick-NML} eat-NML-DCL not drink-NML-DCL die-FUT-DCL

‘That sick man is neither eating nor drinking; he is going to die.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

(22)

ch’epe

ill

yin-soncho-a-ra

1.BEN-become sick-PF-LOC

katre-te

cot-LOC

bar-ka-cha-no-to:

lying-AUX-PRS-NML-PRS.1

ch’epe yin-soncho-a-ra katre-te bar-ka-cha-no-to:

ill {1.BEN-become sick-PF-LOC} cot-LOC lying-AUX-PRS-NML-PRS.1

‘Because I feel ill I am lying on a cot.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

Lexicon and classes of words

[edit]

In regard to the lexicon and the classes of words in Leco, one can mention the following (van de Kerke, 2009: 293–297):

  • In Leco, four major categories of words are distinguished: noun, adjective, verb, and adverb. Besides, the language has a group of minor categories: names of people, personal pronouns, deictic pronouns, numerals, interrogative pronouns, etc.
  • Nouns are characterized morphosyntactically by constituting the nucleus of a noun phrase and by allowing inflection of number and case. Some nouns or substantives in Leco arewon 'house' andphose 'daughter'.
  • In regard to the pronouns, Leco distinguishes four types: personal pronouns, such asera 'I',iya 'you (singular)',kibi 'he/she'; demonstrative pronouns, such ashoo 'this, near the speaker',on 'that, near the addressee' andhino 'that, far from the speaker and the addressee'; interrogative pronouns, such asha 'who',u 'what',nora 'where'; and indefinite pronouns, expressed by means of dubitative phrases, composed of an interrogative pronoun and the suffixes-as 'also' and-ka 'como'.
  • Leco has a large number of adjectival lexemes, which are characterized by expressing qualities of entities. Thus we have, for example,lais 'good',suma 'small'.
  • Leco has a decimal numeral system, composed of the following units:her 'one',too 'two',chai 'three',dirai 'four',bercha 'five',berphahmo 'six',toiphahmo 'seven',ch'aiphahmo 'eight',beepila 'nine', andberiki 'ten'. The numbers six to eight follow a system in base five, as inAymara: 6 = 5 + 1, etc.
  • Leco has a limited number of adverbial lexemes, as, for example:kumte 'late',ch'eka 'yesterday',china 'very'. Also, it has a group of postpositions, which express location and which are combined easily with the case markers, such ashekor 'out',apor 'near',haz 'down'.
  • In regard to the verbs, these are characterized by functioning as the nucleus of the verbal phrase and by receiving inflectional suffixes of time and person, besides having a series of derivational suffixes. Apart from the auxiliariesneck andkach, Leco has intransitive, transitive, and ditransitive verbs. A typical characteristic of this language is that of giving much attention to the position of objects. It manifests itself, for example, in the following verbs, which always combine a noun expressing a position with the auxiliarykach 'to be':chelkach 'to be laid halfway over an object',lewakach 'to be hanging',chakach 'to be sitting', etc.

Vocabulary

[edit]

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for Leco.[10]

glossLeco
onever
twofoi
threechishai
headbarua
eyebisiri
handbu-eú
womanchusna
waterdua
sunheno
maizeta

References

[edit]
  1. ^abLeco atEthnologue (18th ed., 2015)(subscription required)
  2. ^Crevels, Mily (2012-01-13), Campbell, Lyle; Grondona, Verónica (eds.),"Language endangerment in South America: The clock is ticking",The Indigenous Languages of South America, DE GRUYTER, pp. 167–234,doi:10.1515/9783110258035.167,ISBN 978-3-11-025513-3, retrieved2025-09-22
  3. ^"The Puquina and Leko languages - Advances in Native South American Historical Linguistics".
  4. ^Kaufman, Terrence. 1994. The native languages of South America. In: Christopher Moseley and R. E. Asher (eds.),Atlas of the World’s Languages, 59–93. London: Routledge.
  5. ^"Censo de Población y Vivienda 2012 Bolivia Características de la Población".Instituto Nacional de Estadística, República de Bolivia. p. 29. Archived fromthe original on 2021-08-01. Retrieved2020-04-01.
  6. ^Kaufman, Terrence (1994). "The native languages of South America". In Moseley, Christopher; Asher, Ronald E. (eds.).Atlas of the world's languages. London: Routledge. pp. 59–93.ISBN 978-0-415-01925-5.
  7. ^"The Puquina and Leko languages - Advances in Native South American Historical Linguistics".
  8. ^Willem Adelaar; Simon van de Kerke."The Puquina and Leko languages".Symposium: Advances in Native South American Historical Linguistics, July 17-18, 2006, at the 52ndInternational Congress of Americanists, Seville, Spain. Retrieved2007-09-19.
  9. ^Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery (2016).Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas (Ph.D. dissertation) (2 ed.). Brasília: University of Brasília.
  10. ^Loukotka, Čestmír (1968).Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.

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