TheLebanese Forces (Arabic:القوات اللبنانية,romanized: al-Quwwāt al-Lubnāniyya) was the main Lebanese Christian faction during theLebanese Civil War. Resembling theLebanese Front, which was anumbrella organization for different parties, theLebanese Forces was a militia that integrated fighters originating from the different Christian right-wing paramilitary groups, the largest of which was theKataeb Party'smilitia. It was mainly staffed byMaronites andChristians of other denominations loyal toBachir Gemayel, and fought against theLebanese National Movement, thePalestine Liberation Organization, and theSyrian Armed Forces among others. The group gained infamy for their perpetration of the 1982Sabra and Shatila massacre, which primarily targetedPalestinian refugees followingBachir Gemayel's assassination.
A meeting was convened by members of theLebanese Front on 30 August 1976.[6] The success of the Siege of Tal al-Zaatar being due to the combined forces of theKataeb Regulatory Forces,Tigers Militia,Lebanese Youth Movement (MKG),Al-Tanzim, and theGuardians of the Cedars convinced theLebanese Front leaders, especiallyEtienne Saqr andBachir Gemayel, that a unitary militia was needed to further face their enemies. Most importantly the militia leaders were wary of the increased Syrian presence. During this meeting, the Lebanese Forces would be founded withBachir Gemayel elected as its leader.[7] This new Lebanese Forces militia was meant to centralize the right-wing Christian forces, improve organization, and would allow to later bring end to years of infighting that had been going between the different right-wing militias.
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ChristianEast Beirut was ringed by heavily fortified Palestinian camps and as the war progressed a strong organized force was needed. The Lebanese Forces was soon after established on 30 August 1976 with an agreement that the direct military commander would be a Kataeb member and the vice-commander an Ahrar member.
Bachir led his troops in the infamousHundred Days War in Lebanon in 1978, in which the Lebanese Forces successfully resisted the Syrian shelling and attacking of Eastern Beirut for about three months before an Arab-brokered agreement forced the Syrians to end the siege. Syrians took high buildings such as Burj Rizk Achrafieh and Burj El Murr using snipers and heavy weapons against civilians. The soldiers stayed for 90 days. Another major clash took place near the Sodeco area in Achrafieh where the Lebanese Forces fought ferociously and drove the Syrian army out of the Rizk Building.[8] At this time, Israel was the primary backer of the Lebanese Front's militia.
In July 1980, following months of intra-Christian clashes between the Tigers, the militia ofDany Chamoun, and the Phalangists, who by now were under the complete leadership ofBachir Gemayel, the Phalangists launched an operation in an attempt to stop the clashes within the Christian areas, and to unite all the Christian militias under Gemayel's command. This operation resulted ina massacre of tens of Tigers' members at the Marine beach resort inSafra, 25 km north ofBeirut. Camille Chamoun's silence was interpreted as acceptance of Gemayel's controls, because he felt that the Tigers led by his son were getting out of his control.[citation needed]
In 1981 at Zahlé in the Beqaa, the largest Christian town in the East, confronted one of the biggest battles – both military and political – between the Lebanese Forces and the Syrian occupying forces. The Lebanese Forces was able to confront them even though there was a big mismatch in military capabilities and was able to reverse the result of the battle of 1981. This victory was due to the bravery of the inhabitants and 92 Lebanese Forces soldiers (L.F Special Forces: The Maghaweer) sent from Beirut. The Syrian occupying forces used all kind of weapons (e.g., heavy artillery, tanks, war planes) against the town, and they cut all kind of backup that may come from the Mountain. Regardless of the very bad weather and heavy bombing, convoys were sent in the snow to Zahle. Two Lebanese Forces soldiers died on a hill due to bad weather, they were found later holding each other till they died (Fouad Nammour and George Nakhle). The battle of Zahle gave the Lebanese Cause a new perspective in the International Communities, and the victory was both military and diplomatic. It made the Leadership of PresidentBachir Gemayel much stronger because of his leadership and important role in this battle. The battle started in April the 2nd 1981, and finished with a cease fire and Lebanese Police were sent to Zahle. The 92 Lebanese Forces heroes returned to Beirut on 1 July 1981.[9]
Israel invaded Lebanon, arguing that a militaryintervention was necessary in order to root out PLOguerrillas from the southern part of the country. Israeli forces eventually moved towardsBeirut and laid siege to the city, aiming to reshape the Lebanese political landscape and force the PLO out of Lebanon. The Israeli forces had demanded that Bachir and the Lebanese Forces would play a larger role in Israel’s invasion of Beirut however, Bachir would refuse. In the end, the only action the Lebanese Forces would take during the Israeli invasion of Beirut would be the battle against the Syrian forces occupying the Lebanese University - Faculty of Science in Hadath. The Lebanese Forces would come out victorious successfully expelling the Syrian forces from the university.[10][11]
After the PLO had been expelled from the country and moved its headquarters to Tunisia, in a negotiated agreement, Bachir Gemayel became the youngest man to ever be electedpresident of Lebanon. He was elected by the parliament in August; most Muslim members of parliament boycotted the vote.
On 3 September 1982, during the meeting, Begin demanded that Bachir sign a peace treaty with Israel as soon as he took office in return for Israel's earlier support of Lebanese Forces and he also told Bachir that the IDF would stay in South Lebanon if the Peace Treaty was not directly signed. Bachir was furious with Begin and told him that the Lebanese Forces did not fight for seven years and he also told Begin that they did not sacrifice thousands of soldiers to free Lebanon from the Syrian Army and the PLO so that Israel could take their place. The meeting ended in rage and both sides were not happy with each other.[12]
Begin was reportedly angry with Bachir for his public denial of Israel's support. Bachir refused to accept the offer of immediate peace by arguing that time was needed to reach a consensus with the Lebanese Muslims and the Arab nations. Bachir was quoted telling David Kimche, the director general of the Israeli Foreign Ministry, a few days earlier, "Please tell your people to be patient. I am committed to make peace with Israel, and I shall do it. But I need time – nine months, maximum one year. I need to mend my fences with the Arab countries, especially with Saudi Arabia, so that Lebanon can once again play its central role in the economy of the Middle East."[13][14]
In an attempt to fix the relationship between Bachir and Begin,Ariel Sharon held a secret meeting with Bachir in Bikfaya. In this meeting, they both agreed that, after 48 hours, the IDF would cooperate with the Lebanese Army in order to force the Syrian Army out of Lebanon. After that was done, the IDF would peacefully leave Lebanese territory. Concerning the Peace Negotiations, Sharon agreed to give Bachir time to resolve the internal conflicts before signing the negotiations. The next day, Begin's office issued a statement which said that the issues which Bachir and Sharon had agreed upon were accepted.[15]
On 13 September 1982, LF chief of staff Fadi Frem, who was married to one of Bachir’s nieces, would be elected commander in chief of the Lebanese Forces taking Bachir’s place as the latter was expected to assume his term as president.[16] Fadi Frem was a known advocate of federalism and went as far as to travel to the US to advocate for its implementation in Lebanon.
Nine days before he was to take office, on 14 September 1982, Bachir wasassassinated along with 25 others when a bomb exploded in the Kataeb headquarters inAchrafieh. The attack was carried out byHabib Shartouni, a member of theSyrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP), believed by many to have acted on instructions of the Syrian government ofPresidentHafez al-Assad.[17] The next day, Israel moved to occupy the city, allowing Phalangist members under a youngElie Hobeika's command to enter the centrally locatedSabra and the Shatila refugee camp; amassacre followed, in which Phalangists killed between 800 and 3,500 (number is disputed) civilians, mostlyPalestinians andLebanese Shiites, with many victims found raped and tortured. The massacre caused great international uproar, especially towards Sharon.
Bachir Gemayel’s assassination would demoralize the men of the Lebanese Forces who were sure that with Bachir’s election, peace would prevail throughout the country and that the victory was theirs. The Israeli invasion and their cooperation with the Lebanese government allowed many displaced Christians to return to areas they had previously been expelled from. These areas include the Druze majority mountain from where Christians had been expelled following the massacres that followedKamal Jumblatt’s assassination by Syria. Other areas consist of the coastal Chouf, including the town of Damour, and southern villages, such asAishiyeh.
After the Israeli invasion, theIDF troops settled in theChouf andAley from party militias, the Lebanese Forces returned to the Christian villages which had been occupied by the PSP for seven years, and many Christian civilians from the districts returned after having fled earlier in the war. However, soon after, clashes broke out between the Lebanese Forces and theDruze militias who had now taken over the districts and had earlier kicked out the Christian inhabitants. The main Druze militiamen came from theProgressive Socialist Party, led byWalid Jumblatt, in alliance with theSyrian Army and Palestinian militants who had not departed Lebanon in 1982. For months, the two fought what would later be known as the "Mountain War." At the peak of the battle, Israeli troops infamously abandoned the area, handing the best tactical positions over to the Druze militias and their allies as punishment for the Christians' refusal to sign the 17 May peace agreement with Israel, and leaving the Christian forces to fight.At the same time, a small number of ill-equipped Lebanese Forces troops also fought battles against the Palestinian and Druze militias and the Syrian troop east of the southern city ofSidon. The outcome was also a Progressive Socialist Party victory and a contiguous Druze Chouf district with access to Lebanese sea ports.
Jumblatt's militia then overstepped itself by advancing further intoSouk El Gharb, a village also held by the Lebanese Forces. After fierce battles and severe casualties the attackers were pushed back. However, theLebanese Forces eventually handed over their positions inSouk El Gharb to theLebanese army which had great interests in defending the town due to the strategic importance it holds for the army and the Lebanese government as the town lies on the flanks of the Ministry of Defense and the Presidential Palace. After the retreat, the Lebanese Forces freed up more than 2,500 fighters including elite units to fight on other fronts.
On 9 October 1984, Fadi Frem would be replaced as commander in chief by Bachir Gemayel’s nephew Fouad Abou Nader. His election was supported by Amin Gemayel, and the Kataeb, who sought to establish his influence over the Lebanese Forces. Fadi Frem and Amin Gemayel were in disagreement in regards to Syria as Amin was more reconciliatory while Frem was strict in his refusal to deal with the Syrians.[18]
On 12 March 1985,Samir Geagea,Elie Hobeika andKarim Pakradouni rebelled against Abou Nader's command, ostensibly to take the Lebanese Forces back to its original path and away from Amin Gemayel’s control. Leading up to the rebellion, President Amin Gemayel’s rapprochement with Damascus, as well as his treatment of the Lebanese Forces, had caused major dissatisfaction among the ranks of the Lebanese Forces which had been growing for years at that point. Amin Gemayel ordered Geagea to remove theBarbara checkpoint north of Beirut which oversaw the passage between territory still under the control of the Lebanese government and territory occupied by the Syrian army. Geagea, who staunchly opposed Syria, would refuse leading to the Kataeb political bureau’s decision to remove him from the party on 11 March.[19] Commander in Chief at the time, Fouad Abou Nader, would agree to step down and give up his leadership to join the rebellion against President Gemayel and avoid violence between Christians. This uprising would see the installment of a "group command" over a single commander in chief.[20] Geagea’s forces would arrive from the North facing absolutely no resistance. The relationship between Geagea and Hobeika soon broke down, however, and Hobeika began secret negotiations with the Syrians.
On 18 March 1985, clashes began pitting the Palestinian militants and their local Lebanese Muslim allies against the local Christians in the villages of East Sidon caused by the kidnapping of three local Christians. The area which had been under the control Israelis saw the introduction of Lebanese Forces militants who installed themselves in the previously defenseless Christian villages that feared the same fate as Christians in the mountain two years earlier. This fear came reality as clashes began after Israeli forces withdrew from the city of Sidon on 16 February 1985.[21] For the region this meant renewed fighting as the Israelis served as buffer between the local militias preventing them from fighting. The Lebanese Forces in the region, led by regional commander Nazar Najarian, had chosen to be loyal to the new Lebanese Forces management under Samir Geagea and Elie Hobeika in their fight for control of the leadership of the Christian community against Amine Gemayel.[22] The LF led the battle against the PLO which was still present in South Lebanon as well asNabih Berri’s Lebanese Shia militia, theAmal Movement andWalid Jumblatt’s Druze militiaPeople’s Liberation Army (Lebanon). The battle would end with the withdrawal of the Lebanese Forces on 24 April as announced by Samir Geagea two days earlier. LF troops were allowed to leave for East Beirut by sea leaving from the port Jiyeh north of Sidon while others left for the Christian town of Jezzine where theSouth Lebanon Army was based. TheBattle of East Sidon and its result saw the displacement of more than 60,000 Christians from the region.
On 28 December 1985, Elie Hobeika signed theTripartite Accord, against the wishes of Geagea and most of the other leading Christian figures. Claiming that the Tripartite Accord gave Syria unlimited power in Lebanon, Geagea mobilized factions inside the Lebanese Forces and on 15 January 1986, attacked Hobeika's headquarters inKarantina. Hobeika surrendered and fled, first toParis and subsequently toDamascus,Syria. He then moved toZahlé with tens of his fighters where he prepared for an attack against East Beirut. On 27 September 1986, Hobeika's forces tried to take over theAchrafieh neighborhood of Beirut but the Lebanese Forces of Geagea's command held them back.
This failed attempt by Hobeika was the last episode of internal struggles in East Beirut during Amine Gemayel's mandate. As a result, the Lebanese Forces led by Geagea were the only major force on ground. During two years of frail peace, Geagea launched a drive to re-equip and reorganize the Lebanese Forces. He also instituted asocial welfare program in areas controlled by Geagea's party. The Lebanese Forces also cut its relations with Israel and emphasized relations with theArab states, mainlyIraq but alsoSaudi Arabia,Jordan, andEgypt.
Two rival governments contended for recognition following Amine Gemayel's departure from the Presidency in September 1988, one a mainly Christian government and the other a government of Muslims and Lebanese Leftists. The Lebanese Forces initially supported the military Christian government led by Gen.Michel Aoun, the commander of the Lebanese Army. However, clashes erupted between the Lebanese Forces and theLebanese Army under the control ofMichel Aoun on 14 February 1989. These clashes were stopped, and after a meeting inBkerké, the Lebanese Forces handed the national ports which it controlled to Aoun's government under pressure from the Lebanese National Army.
Geagea initially supported Aoun's "Liberation War" against the Syrian army, but then agreed to theTaif Agreement, which was signed by the Lebanese deputies on 24 October 1989 in Saudi Arabia and demanded an immediateceasefire. Aoun's main objection to the Taif Agreement was its vagueness as to Syrian withdrawal from the country. He rejected it vowing that he "would not sign over the country." Fierce fighting in East Beirut broke out between the two, called the "Elimination War" on 31 January 1990.
On 1 April 1990, following an agreement between Geagea and Hrawi, General Elie Hayek (who had been appointed commander of the Mount Lebanon governorate two weeks prior)[23] was mandated by the executive to begin the transfer of military and political administrations in the Christian enclave from the LF to the West Beirut government.[24] The territories in the Christian North Governorate and East Beirut would still remain under complete LF control, in addition to the 30000 reservist 10000 active men strong militia remain intact for the moment. In response, Aoun announced that he would not accept any alliance between the two, and transferring the regions of the Metn was thus impossible due to the raging Elimination War.[25]To further demonstrate his commitment to Taif and willingness to extend civilian administration in "Marounistan", Geagea placed Hayek's bureau at the LF HQ in Jounieh.[26]
Following the defeat and surrender of Aoun at Baabda on 13 October 1990, the LAF under Hayek's command began extending its influence South into the Metn and Baabda.On 30 April 1991 – final date imposed by the government for the total surrender of weapons and heavy artillery – all LF areas were ceded to the army command for the first time since 1975.
After Aoun surrendered on 13 October 1990 to the rival Syrian-backed President Hrawi, Geagea was offered ministerial posts in the new government. He refused several times, because he was opposed to Syrian interference in Lebanese affairs, and his relationship with the new government deteriorated.On 23 March 1994, the Lebanese government headed byRafic Hariri ordered the dissolution of the LF.[27] On 21 April 1994, Geagea was arrested on charges of setting a bomb in a church atZouk Mikael, of instigating acts of violence, and of committingassassinations during the Lebanese Civil War. Although he was acquitted of the first charge, Geagea was subsequently arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment on several different counts, including the assassination of formerPrime MinisterRashid Karami in 1987. He was incarcerated in solitary confinement, with his access to the outside world severely restricted.Amnesty International criticized the conduct of the trials and demanded Geagea's release, and Geagea's supporters argued that the Syrian-controlled Lebanese government had used the alleged crimes as a pretext for jailing Geagea and banning an anti-Syrian party.Many members of the Lebanese Forces were arrested and brutally tortured in the period of 1993–1994. At least one died in Syrian custody and many others were severely injured.[28]
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Initially allocated at theKataeb Party's offices inAchrafieh, the LF Headquarters was relocated in August 1976 by Bachir Gemayel to an abandoned hospital at theKarantina neighborhood located east of thePort of Beirut,[29] where it stayed until 1986, before being moved to its final location at the coastal town ofAmsheet.
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By the early 1980s, the LF command had built up a force of some 15,000 well-armed militiamen, and claimed that they could mobilize a total Christian army of 40,000, complete with Israeli-supplied tanks and artillery.[30]
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LF ground forces' strength by the late 1980s peaked at 14,500 full-time regulars (although other sources list a slightly higher number, about 15,000)[31] and 30,000 part-time reservists, totalling 44,500 men and women equipped with an impressive though disparate arsenal of 100 tanks, 200 APCs and 150 artillery pieces of various types.
The LF was structured along conventional lines, comprising several branches of service and support units, most of them inherited from the oldKataeb Regulatory Forces. Specialized technical services consisted of:
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To train LF officer cadets, a Military Academy, later renamed theBachir Gemayel Institute (Arabic:Maehad Bachir Gemayel), was set up in 1985 at a disused Maronite monastery in the town ofGhosta, located 20 km east of Beirut in theKeserwan District.
The Lebanese Forces were financed, trained and armed mainly by Israel, though they also received covert military support from France, the United States, United Kingdom,South Africa,Jordan andIraq. In addition to aid from the Israelis, the LF purchased a large part of their military supplies on the internationalblack market, and also made use of captured stocks from thePalestine Liberation Organization (PLO), theSyrian Army and even theLebanese Army.
Lebanese Forces's militiamen were provided with a variety of small-arms, comprisingM1 Garand (or its Italian-produced copy, theBeretta Model 1952)[50] andSKS[51]semi-automatic rifles, plusMAT-49,[52]Škorpion vz. 61,[53][52]Carl Gustaf m/45 (or its Egyptian-produced version, dubbed the "Port Said"),[52]Walther MPL,[52]Sterling L2A3/Mark 4,[54][52]Spectre M4,[52]Uzi (MP-2, Mini Uzi and Micro Uzi variants),[52]MAC-10,[52]MAC-11 (sub-compact version of the MAC-10),[52]Heckler & Koch MP5 andHeckler & Koch MP5K (shortened version of the MP5)submachine guns.[52] An undisclosed number ofOTs-02 Kiparis SMGs[52] were reportedly obtained fromRussia in the early 1990s, though it remains unclear if they were ever used in action by the LF.
Several models of assault rifles were employed, such asM16A1,[55][34][51]FN FAL[51] (variants included the Israeli-produced 'lightened'ROMAT),Heckler & Koch G3,[56][51]Vz. 58,AK-47 andAKM[51] (other variants included theZastava M70, ChineseType 56, RomanianPistol Mitralieră model 1963/1965, Bulgarian AKK/AKKS and former East GermanMPi-KMS-72 assault rifles).[57][53] Limited quantities of theAMD-65,CAR-15[58] andSIG SG 543 carbines,[59][60] M16A2,SIG SG 542,[51]FN CAL,[61]Heckler & Koch HK33,Heckler & Koch G41,Heckler & Koch HK53 (Compact version of the HK33) andArmaLite AR-18 assault rifles were also acquired, being mostly employed by LF elite commando units on special operations. Inevitably, this variety of assault rifles and carbines of different calibres in service within LF combat units naturally caused logistic difficulties to the LF's supply corps, so the LF Command decided after 1986 to simplify its small-arms inventory by standardizing on the FN FAL, M16A1, and AKM assault rifles for its infantry units, though this still posed problems in providing ammunition and replacement parts up to the end of the War.[62]
Shotguns consisted ofMossberg 500 12-gauge (20.2 mm),[63]Remington Model 870 Police Magnum 12-gauge (20.2 mm),[63] andFranchi SPAS-12[63] andFranchi SPAS-15[63] semi-automatic models. Sniper rifles were commonly used, and models included theDragunov SVD-63,[64][65][66]Tabuk,M21,[66]Remington Model 700,[66]Savage 10FP/110FP,[66]Enfield L42A1 (military version) and Enforcer (Police version) rifles,[66] and theHeckler & Koch PSG1.[66]
A wide variety of handguns models were used, includingSmith & Wesson Model 10,Smith & Wesson Model 13,Smith & Wesson Model 14,Smith & Wesson Model 15,Smith & Wesson Model 17 andSmith & Wesson Model 19 revolvers,Mauser M2 semi-automatic handguns,Walther PPK pistols,[57]Heckler & Koch VP 70,Heckler & Koch P7 andHeckler & Koch P9 pistols,SIG P210,SIG-Sauer P220 andSIG-Sauer P225 pistols,Astra A-80,Astra A-90 andAstra A-100 pistols,Llama M82 pistols,Star 30M, and Star A, B, B Super and P pistols,Star Ultrastar, Star Firestar and Star Megastar pistols,Taurus PT92, PT99 and PT100 pistols,Beretta M1951 pistols,MAB PA-15 pistols,Colt M1911A1 Semi-Automatic Pistols, Para-Ordnance P14-45 (Canadian-produced version of the M1911A1 pistol),FN Browning Hi-Power pistols,[38][58]FN Browning BDM pistols,FN Browning BDA380 pistols,FN Browning HP-DA/BDA9 pistols,Tokarev TT-33 pistols,Makarov PM/PMM pistols, andCZ 52,CZ 75,CZ 82/83 andCZ 85 pistols.
Squad weapons consisted ofRheinmetall MG 3,Heckler & Koch HK21,AA-52,RPK,RPD,PK/PKM,M60 andFN MAG[33] light machine guns, with heavierBrowning M1919A4 .30 Cal,[67]Browning M2HB .50 Cal,SG-43/SGM Goryunov andDShKM machine guns being employed as platoon and company weapons.[citation needed]
Grenade launchers and portable anti-tank weapons were also widely employed, includingM203 grenade launchers,[38][68]CMS B-300 83 mm,M72 LAW,RPG-7 andM47 Dragonanti-tank rocket launchers.[69] Anti-tank guided missile systems comprised theMILAN (75 missiles and nine launchers were allegedly obtained throughSouth African sources),[39][70][71] theBGM-71 TOW (seized from Lebanese Army stocks)[71] and theAT-3 Sagger.[72] Crew-served and indirect fire weapons includedM224 60 mm,M29 81 mm,Type E1 51 mm and2B14-1 Podnos 82 mm light mortars, plusM2 Carl Gustaf 84 mm,[69]SPG-9 73 mm,[73][69]B-10 82 mm,B-11 107 mm andM40A1 106 mmrecoilless rifles (often mounted ontechnicals).[70]
The Lebanese Forces' early armoured corps in 1977 inherited a motley collection of capturedlight tanks,Charioteer tanks,M42A1 DusterSPAAGs, APCs, and some models of homebuilt armoured cars[74] from the oldKataeb Regulatory Forces or handed over by the other, recently incorporated Christian factions. Thanks to the steady influx of Israeli aid, it grew from a small battalion to a powerful armoured corps by June 1982, capable of aligning some fortyM50 Super Sherman medium tanks,[30][75][76][77][78] twenty-twoTi-67 TIRAN (Israeli-modifiedT-54/55s) MBTs[79] (other sources list a total of either thirty-six or forty Ti-67s on the LF inventory),[80][81][82]M3/M9 Zahlam half-tracks,[83][84]M113[64][85][86] andBTR-152[87] APCs. In addition, twenty T-54/55 tanks were later captured from the Syrian Army in the course of the1982 Lebanon War, being repaired and subsequently taken into LF service.[88] Following the PLO's withdrawal from west Beirut in October 1982, the LF salvaged sevenUR-416armoured cars left behind by the departing Palestinian forces, from which one vehicle was later captured by thePopular Nasserist Organization (PNO) militia during the battle for theSidon bridgehead in 1985.[89]
The collapse of theLebanese Army's4th Infantry Brigade in February 1984 allowed the LF to make up for their own losses incurred in the 1983–84Mountain War by seizing sevenM48A5 MBTs,[90][91][92][93] fiveAMX-13 light tanks,[90] twelvePanhard AML-90 armoured cars,[90][94] and some M113 APCs.[95] Later in the war, sixty-fourT-54A, T-55A[96][97][98][99][100] andT-62 tanks, along with fifty M113 APCs modified as mortar carriers (captured from theIslamic Republic of Iran Army during theIran-Iraq War)[101][102] and eighteenBTR-60PB (8x8) APCs were received from Iraq via Jordan in 1986–89; a fewM577 command vehicles,AMX-VCI[78] andPanhard M3 VTT armoured personnel carriers were also seized from theLebanese Army in 1990.[103] The LF also fielded three Soviet-builtZSU-23-4M1 ShilkaSPAAGs captured from the PLO in West Beirut early in 1982, which they employed in their battles for control of east Beirut during theElimination War in January–October 1990.[citation needed]
Besides tracked and wheeled AFVs, the LF also relied on a wide range of softskin, all-terrain military and 'militarized' civilian vehicles for both troop and supply transport. Like many other Lebanese militias, the LF continued to field a sizable force ofgun trucks andtechnicals armed with Heavy Machine-guns,recoilless rifles,Anti-Aircraftautocannons, anti-tank rockets and lightMBRLs.[70] The light vehicles employed in this role included SovietUAZ-469,[104] USM151A1/A2 jeeps,[105] USWillys M38A1 MD[105] and South KoreanKiaKM410 andKeohwa KH-5GA1 jeeps,[106][70][71] toLand Rover Series II-III,[105]Santana Series III (Spanish-produced version of the Land-Rover series III),Morattab Series IV (Iranian-produced unlicensed version of the Land-Rover long wheelbase series III),[105]Toyota Land Cruiser (J40/J42),Chevrolet C-10/C-15 Cheyenne andChevrolet C-20 Scottsdale light pickup trucks,[107]Dodge D series (3rd generation) andDodge Power Wagon W200 pickup trucks, Israeli-producedAIL M325 Command Cars ('Nun-Nun'),[108][109][110] andMercedes-Benz Unimog 404 and416 light trucks (captured from the PLO in 1982).[111]
For logistical support, pickups and light, medium and heavy transportation trucks were employed, mostlyToyota Land Cruiser (J42)hardtop,Toyota Land Cruiser (J45),[112]Toyota Land Cruiser (J70) hardtop, AIL M325,M880/M890 Series CUCV, Chevrolet C-20,[107] andDatsun 620 Custom 1976 pickup trucks,[113] Unimog light trucks,GAZ-66,[73]Chevrolet C-50 medium-duty,Dodge F600 medium-duty andGMC C4500 medium-duty trucks, andGMC C7500 heavy-duty cargo trucks, USM35A2 2½-ton (6x6) military trucks,M813 5-ton (6x6) cargo trucks[114] andFaun L912/21-MUN heavy cargo trucks. In addition, AIL M325 ambulance version cars,Chevrolet/GMC G-Series third generation vans,[115]Volkswagen Type 2 Transporter minibuses andNissan Patrol 160-Series (3rd generation) 5-door wagon/vans[113] were used as military ambulances. The Israelis also provided to the LF a number ofM88A1 medium recovery vehicles,[116] which served alongside someM578 light recovery vehicles seized from the Lebanese Army[117] and capturedVT-55KS Armoured Recovery Vehicles from the Syrian Army.[118]Ratrack dual track snow coaches were employed by the LF in the snowy environment of Mount Lebanon mountains.[119] The LF fielded three ex-US Army XM523E2 Heavy Equipment Transporters (HET) to transport its medium tanks and MBTs.[120]
The LF also fielded an impressive artillery corps. Starting with some BritishQF Mk III 25-Pounder field guns seized from the Government Forces, they received four FrenchDEFA D921/GT-2 90mm anti-tank guns (mounted onM3/M9 half tracks),[121]ZiS-3 76.2mm anti-tank guns (mounted onGAZ-66 trucks)[117] andBF-50 (M-50) 155mm Howitzers[122] andM-30 122mm (M-1938) Howitzers from the Israelis, followed in the 1980s byD-44 85 mm anti-tank guns,[123][124]M-46 130mm (M-1954),[125]Type 59-1 130 mm (a Chinese-made gun derivered from the Soviet M-46), eighteenBS-3 100mm (M-1944), eighteenD-30 122 mm (some re-mounted on turretless T-54 tanks)[126] andD-20 152 mm Howitzers of Soviet origin supplied by Israel, Jordan and Iraq. A number ofFH-70 155 mm howitzers were also seized from the Lebanese Army in February 1984.[citation needed]
The two latter Countries also provided to the LF substantial quantities ofMulti-Barrel Rocket Launchers (MBRLs), notably theBM-21 Grad 122 mm system mounted on RussianUral-375D (6x6) military trucks (of which eighteen were delivered by Iraq);[127] such MBRLs could also be found installed on the back ofMercedes-Benz Unimog 406 (4x4) light trucks.[74] The LF also employed ChineseType 63 107 mm towed MBRLs captured from the PLO in 1982 (with some being re-installed on the rear tray of South Korean Keohwa M-5GA1 Jeeps, Israeli-made 'Nun-Nun' Command cars, and on turretless T-54 tanks)[108][70][126] as well as Iraqi-supplied Romanian APR-40/Yugoslav RO-40 128mm systems mounted onDAC-665T (6x6) trucks.[127][102] Iraq also provided a small number ofFrog-7 short-rangeartillery rockets mounted on wheeled 9P113transporter erector launchers (TEL).[128][129]
These same countries also gave the LF limited quantities of heavy mortars, such as the Israeli-madeSoltam M-65 120 mm[130] andM-66 160 mm heavy mortars mounted on ex-IDF half-tracks[118] and modified M113 APCs,[131][102] and even received from Iraq in 1988 three Soviet2S4 240mm towed breech-loading heavy mortars, to which were added one or two Chinese-manufactured 240mm mortars the LF had captured in 1982 following the Israeli invasion.[citation needed]
SovietKPV 14.5mm,ZPU (ZPU-1, ZPU-2, ZPU-4) 14.5mm[132] andZU-23-2 23mm AAautocannons,[133] BritishBofors 40mm L/60 anti-aircraft guns[134] and SovietAZP S-60 57 mm anti-aircraft guns[135] (mostly mounted ontechnicals, M113 and BTR-152 APCs and M3/M9 half-tracks)[136][84] were employed in bothair defense and direct fire supporting roles. Man-portable, shoulder-launched SovietSA-7 Grailsurface-to-air missiles (SAM) were also used by the LF, possibly obtained from Iraq.[72]
Apart from its ground forces, the LF maintained a naval branch equipped with over a dozen sea crafts of various types. The inventory comprized two British-madeFairey Marine Tracker MkII Class patrol boats previously seized from theLebanese Navy in January 1980, two Israeli-madeDvora-class fast patrol boats[citation needed] and fiveDabur-1 class patrol boats acquired via theMossad that same year[137][138] and eight French-madeZodiac rubber inflatable boats, plus an unspecified number of converted civilian fishing crafts armed withHeavy machine-guns andRPG-7s.[33]
In the late 1980s, the LF Command made plans to raise an air wing equipped mainly with light attack helicopters.[citation needed] Several student pilots were sent to Iraq and other countries to attend helicopter pilot courses, and later on the LF received from Iraq threeAérospatiale SA 342L Gazelle helicopter gunships.[citation needed] The program was eventually interrupted, then canceled when theElimination War broke out in January 1990. It is not clear if any of the Gazelles were actually delivered by the Iraqis prior to the end of the civil war in October 1990, although it has been reported that the LF illegally sold three helicopters of this same type toSerbia in 1991.[139]
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