Around 3000 BC, the Proto-Baltic ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of theBaltic Sea.[20] TheBalts established trade routes to Rome andByzantium, trading localamber for precious metals.[21] By 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia:Curonians,Latgalians,Selonians,Semigallians (in Latvian:kurši,latgaļi,sēļi andzemgaļi), as well as the Finnic tribe ofLivonians (lībieši) speaking a Finnic language.[22]
Although the local people had contact with the outside world for centuries, they became more fully integrated into the European socio-political system in the 12th century.[24] The first missionaries, sent by the Pope, sailed up theDaugava River in the late 12th century, seeking converts.[25] The local people, however, did not convert to Christianity as readily as the Church had hoped.[25]
German crusaders were sent, or more likely decided to go of their own accord as they were known to do.Saint Meinhard of Segeberg arrived inIkšķile, in 1184, traveling with merchants toLivonia, on a Catholic mission to convert the population from their originalpagan beliefs. Pope Celestine III had called fora crusade against pagans in Northern Europe in 1193. When peaceful means of conversion failed to produce results, Meinhard plotted to convert Livonians by force of arms.[26]
At the beginning of the 13th century, Germans ruled large parts of what is currently Latvia.[25] The influx of German crusaders in the present-day Latvian territory especially increased in the second half of the 13th century following thedecline and fall of the Crusader States in theMiddle East.[27] Together with southern Estonia, these conquered areas formed thecrusader state that became known asTerra Mariana (Medieval Latin for "Land ofMary") or Livonia.[28] In 1282, Riga, and later the cities ofCēsis,Limbaži,Koknese andValmiera, became part of theHanseatic League.[25] Riga became an important point of east–west trading[25] and formed close cultural links withWestern Europe.[29] The first German settlers were knights from northern Germany and citizens of northern German towns who brought theirLow German language to the region, which shaped many loanwords in the Latvian language.[30]
In the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,Sweden, andRussia struggled for supremacy in the eastern Baltic. After thePolish–Swedish War, northern Livonia (including Vidzeme) came under Swedish rule. Riga became the capital ofSwedish Livonia and the largest city in the entire Swedish Empire.[33] Fighting continued sporadically between Sweden and Poland until theTruce of Altmark in 1629.[34][35] In Latvia, the Swedish period is generally remembered as positive;serfdom was eased, a network of schools was established for the peasantry, and the power of the regionalbarons was diminished.[36][37]
Several important cultural changes occurred during this time. Under Swedish and largely German rule, western Latvia adoptedLutheranism as its main religion.[38] The ancient tribes of the Couronians, Semigallians, Selonians, Livs, and northern Latgallians assimilated to form theLatvian people, speaking oneLatvian language.[39][40] Throughout all the centuries, however, an actual Latvian state had not been established, so the borders and definitions of who exactly fell within that group are largely subjective. Meanwhile, largely isolated from the rest of Latvia, southern Latgallians adoptedCatholicism under Polish/Jesuit influence. The native dialect remained distinct, although it acquired many Polish and Russian loanwords.[41]
Livonia and Courland in the Russian Empire (1795–1917)
The emancipation of the serfs took place in Courland in 1817 and in Vidzeme in 1819.[44] In practice, however, the emancipation was actually advantageous to the landowners and nobility, as it dispossessed peasants of their land without compensation, forcing them to return to work at the estates "of their own free will".
During these two centuries Latvia experienced economic and construction boom – ports were expanded (Riga became the largest port in the Russian Empire), railways built; new factories, banks, and a university were established; many residential, public (theatres and museums), and school buildings were erected; new parks formed; and so on. Riga's boulevards and some streets outside the Old Town date from this period.
Numeracy was also higher in the Livonian and Courlandian parts of the Russian Empire, which may have been influenced by the Protestant religion of the inhabitants.[45]
During the 19th century, the social structure changed dramatically.[46] A class of independent farmers established itself after reforms allowed the peasants to repurchase their land, but many landless peasants remained, quite a lotLatvians left for the cities and sought for education, industrial jobs.[46] There also developed a growing urbanproletariat and an increasingly influential Latvianbourgeoisie.[46] TheYoung Latvian (Latvian:Jaunlatvieši) movement laid the groundwork for nationalism from the middle of the century, many of its leaders looking to theSlavophiles for support against the prevailing German-dominated social order.[47][48] The rise in use of theLatvian language in literature and society became known as theFirst National Awakening.[47]Russification began in Latgale after the Polish led theJanuary Uprising in 1863: this spread to the rest of what is now Latvia by the 1880s. The Young Latvians were largely eclipsed by theNew Current, a broad leftist social and political movement, in the 1890s.[49] Popular discontent exploded in the1905 Russian Revolution, which took a nationalist character in theBaltic provinces.[50]
World War I devastated the territory of what became the state of Latvia, and other western parts of the Russian Empire. Demands forself-determination were initially confined toautonomy, until a power vacuum was created by theRussian Revolution in 1917, followed by theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk between Russia and Germany in March 1918, then theAllied armistice with Germany on 11 November 1918. On 18 November 1918, in Riga, thePeople's Council of Latvia proclaimed the independence of the new country andKārlis Ulmanis was entrusted to set up a government and he took the position of prime minister.[51]
The General representative of GermanyAugust Winnig formally handed over political power to the Latvian Provisional Government on 26 November. On 18 November, the Latvian People's Council entrusted him to set up the government. He took the office of Minister of Agriculture from 18 November to 19 December. He took a position of prime minister from 19 November 1918 to 13 July 1919.
A freely electedConstituent assembly convened on 1 May 1920, and adopted a liberal constitution, theSatversme, in February 1922.[53] The constitution was partly suspended by Kārlis Ulmanis afterhis coup in 1934 but reaffirmed in 1990. Since then, it has been amended and is still in effect in Latvia today. With most of Latvia's industrial base evacuated to the interior of Russia in 1915, radicalland reform was the central political question for the young state. In 1897, 61.2% of the rural population had been landless; by 1936, that percentage had been reduced to 18%.[54]
On 15 May 1934, Ulmanis stageda bloodless coup, establishing a nationalist dictatorship that lasted until 1940.[55] After 1934, Ulmanis establishedgovernment corporations to buy up private firms with the aim of "Latvianising" the economy.[56]
Early in the morning of 24 August 1939, theSoviet Union andNazi Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression pact, called theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact.[57] The pact contained a secret protocol, revealed only after Germany's defeat in 1945, according to which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet "spheres of influence".[58] In the north, Latvia, Finland and Estonia were assigned to the Soviet sphere.[58]
After the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, most of theBaltic Germans left Latvia by agreement between Ulmanis's government and Nazi Germany under theHeim ins Reich programme.[59] Most of those who remained left for Germany in summer 1940, when a second resettlement scheme was agreed.[60] The racially approved being resettled mainly in Poland, being given land and businesses in exchange for the money they had received from the sale of their previous assets.[61]: 46
On 5 October 1939, Latvia was forced to accept a "mutual assistance" pact with the Soviet Union, granting the Soviets the right to station between 25,000 and 30,000 troops on Latvian territory.[62]State administrators were murdered and replaced by Soviet cadres.[63] Elections were held with single pro-Soviet candidates listed for many positions. The resulting people's assembly immediately requested admission into the USSR, which the Soviet Union granted.[63] Latvia, then a puppet government, was headed byAugusts Kirhenšteins.[64] The Soviet Union incorporated Latvia on 5 August 1940, as theLatvian Soviet Socialist Republic.
German soldiers enter Riga, July 1941.
The Soviets dealt harshly with theiropponents – prior toOperation Barbarossa, in less than a year, at least 34,250 Latvians were deported or killed.[65] Most were deported to Siberia where deaths were estimated at 40 percent.[61]: 48
On 22 June 1941, German troops attacked Soviet forces in Operation Barbarossa.[66] There were some spontaneous uprisings by Latvians against the Red Army which helped the Germans. By 29 JuneRiga was reached and with Soviet troops killed, captured or retreating, Latvia was left under the control of German forces by early July.[67][61]: 78–96
Under German occupation, Latvia was administered as part ofReichskommissariat Ostland.[68] Latvian paramilitary andAuxiliary Police units established by the occupation authority participated inthe Holocaust and other atrocities.[55] 30,000 Jews were shot in Latvia in the autumn of 1941.[61]: 127 Another 30,000 Jews from the Riga ghetto were killed in the Rumbula Forest in November and December 1941, to reduce overpopulation in the ghetto and make room for more Jews being brought in from Germany and the West.[61]: 128 There was a pause in fighting, apart from partisan activity, until after thesiege of Leningrad ended in January 1944, and the Soviet troops advanced, entering Latvia in July and eventually capturing Riga on 13 October 1944.[61]: 271
The Soviets reoccupied the country in 1944–1945, and further deportations followed as the country wascollectivisedandSovietised.[55]
In the post-war period, Latvia was made to adopt Soviet farming methods. Rural areas were forced intocollectivization.[69] An extensive program to imposebilingualism was initiated in Latvia, limiting the use of Latvian language in official uses in favor of using Russian as the main language. All of the minority schools (Jewish, Polish, Belarusian, Estonian, Lithuanian) were closed down leaving only two media of instructions in the schools: Latvian and Russian.[70] An influx of new colonists, including laborers, administrators, military personnel and their dependents from Russia and other Soviet republics started. By 1959 about 400,000 Russian settlers arrived and the ethnic Latvian population had fallen to 62%.[71]
Since Latvia had maintained a well-developed infrastructure and educated specialists, Moscow decided to base some of the Soviet Union's most advanced manufacturing in Latvia. New industry was created in Latvia, including a majormachinery factory RAF inJelgava, electrotechnical factories inRiga, chemical factories inDaugavpils,Valmiera andOlaine—and some food and oil processing plants.[72] Latvia manufactured trains, ships, minibuses, mopeds, telephones, radios and hi-fi systems, electrical and diesel engines, textiles, furniture, clothing, bags and luggage, shoes, musical instruments, home appliances, watches, tools and equipment, aviation and agricultural equipment and long list of other goods. Latvia had its own film industry and musical records factory (LPs). However, there were not enough people to operate the newly built factories.[citation needed] To maintain and expand industrial production, skilled workers were migrating from all over the Soviet Union, decreasing the proportion of ethnic Latvians in the republic.[73] The population of Latvia reached its peak in 1990 at just under 2.7 million people.
In the second half of the 1980s, Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachev started to introduce political and economic reforms in the Soviet Union that were calledglasnost andperestroika. In the summer of 1987, the first large demonstrations were held in Riga at theFreedom Monument—a symbol of independence. In the summer of 1988, a national movement, coalescing in thePopular Front of Latvia, was opposed by theInterfront. The Latvian SSR, along with the otherBaltic Republics was allowed greater autonomy, and in 1988, the old pre-warFlag of Latvia flew again, replacing the Soviet Latvian flag as the official flag in 1990.[74][75] In 1989, theSupreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution on theOccupation of the Baltic states, in which it declared the occupation "not in accordance with law", and not the "will of the Soviet people". Pro-independence Popular Front of Latvia candidates gained a two-thirds majority in theSupreme Council in theMarch 1990 democratic elections.
However, the central power in Moscow continued to regard Latvia as a Soviet republic in 1990 and 1991. In January 1991, Soviet political and military forces unsuccessfully tried to overthrow the Republic of Latvia authorities by occupying the central publishing house in Riga and establishing a Committee of National Salvation to usurp governmental functions. During the transitional period, Moscow maintained many central Soviet state authorities in Latvia.[76]
The Popular Front of Latvia advocated that all permanent residents be eligible for Latvian citizenship, however, universal citizenship for all permanent residents was not adopted. Instead, citizenship was granted to persons who had been citizens of Latvia on the day of loss of independence in 1940 as well as their descendants. As a consequence, the majority of ethnic non-Latvians did not receive Latvian citizenship since neither they nor their parents had ever been citizens of Latvia, becomingnon-citizens or citizens of other former Soviet republics. By 2011, more than half of non-citizens had takennaturalization exams and received Latvian citizenship, but in 2015 there were still 290,660 non-citizens in Latvia, which represented 14.1% of the population. They haveno citizenship of any country, and cannot participate in the parliamentary elections.[77] Children born to non-nationals or stateless persons after the re-establishment of independence on 21 August 1991 are automatically entitled to citizenship.[78]
The Republic of Latvia declared the end of the transitional period and restored full independence on 21 August 1991, in the aftermath of the failedSoviet coup attempt.[4] Latvia resumed diplomatic relations with Western states, including Sweden.[79] TheSaeima, Latvia's parliament, was again elected in 1993. Russia ended its military presence by completing its troop withdrawal in 1994 and shutting down theSkrunda-1 radar station in 1998.
The major goals of Latvia in the 1990s, to joinNATO and theEuropean Union, were achieved in 2004. TheNATO Summit 2006 was held in Riga.[80]Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga wasPresident of Latvia from 1999 until 2007. She was the first female head of state in the former Soviet bloc state and was active in Latvia joining both NATO and the European Union in 2004.[81] Latvia signed theSchengen agreement on 16 April 2003 and started its implementation on 21 December 2007.[82]
Approximately 72% of Latvian citizens are Latvian, while 20% are Russian.[83] The government denationalized private property confiscated by the Soviets, returning it or compensating the owners for it, andprivatized most state-owned industries, reintroducing theprewar currency. Albeit having experienced a difficult transition to a liberal economy and its re-orientation toward Western Europe, Latvia is one of the fastest growing economies in the European Union.[84] In November 2013,the roof collapsed at a shopping center in Riga, causing Latvia’s worst post-independence disaster with the deaths of 54 rush hour shoppers and rescue personnel.[85]
In late 2018 the National Archives of Latvia released a full alphabetical index of some 10,000 people recruited as agents or informants by the Soviet KGB. 'The publication, which followed two decades of public debate and the passage of a special law, revealed the names, code names, birthplaces and other data on active and former KGB agents as of 1991, the year Latvia regained its independence from the Soviet Union.'[86]
In May 2023, the parliament electedEdgars Rinkēvičs as newPresident of Latvia, making him the European Union’s first openly gay head of state.[87] After years of debates, Latvia ratified the EUConvention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence, otherwise known as theIstanbul Convention in November 2023.[88]
Latvia lies in Northern Europe, on the eastern shores of theBaltic Sea.
Latvia lies in Northern Europe, on the eastern shores of theBaltic Sea and northwestern part of theEast European Craton (EEC), between latitudes55° and58° N (a small area is north of 58°), and longitudes21° and29° E (a small area is west of 21°). Latvia has a total area of 64,559 km2 (24,926 sq mi) of which 62,157 km2 (23,999 sq mi) land, 18,159 km2 (7,011 sq mi) agricultural land,[89] 34,964 km2 (13,500 sq mi) forest land[90] and 2,402 km2 (927 sq mi) inland water.[91]
The total length of Latvia's boundary is 1,866 km (1,159 mi). The total length of its land boundary is 1,368 km (850 mi), of which 343 km (213 mi) is shared withEstonia to the north, 276 km (171 mi) with theRussian Federation to the east, 161 km (100 mi) withBelarus to the southeast and 588 km (365 mi) withLithuania to the south. The total length of itsmaritime boundary is 498 km (309 mi), which is shared with Estonia, Sweden andLithuania. Extension from north to south is 210 km (130 mi) and from west to east 450 km (280 mi).[91]
Most of Latvia's territory is less than 100 m (330 ft)above sea level. Its largest lake,Lubāns, has an area of 80.7 km2 (31.2 sq mi), its deepest lake,Drīdzis, is 65.1 m (214 ft) deep. The longest river on Latvian territory is theGauja, at 452 km (281 mi) in length. The longest river flowing through Latvian territory is theDaugava, which has a total length of 1,005 km (624 mi), of which 352 km (219 mi) is on Latvian territory. Latvia's highest point isGaiziņkalns, 311.6 m (1,022 ft). The length of Latvia'sBaltic coastline is 494 km (307 mi). An inlet of the Baltic Sea, the shallowGulf of Riga is situated in the northwest of the country.[92]
Coastal regions, especially the western coast of theCourland Peninsula, possess a more maritime climate with cooler summers and milder winters, while eastern parts exhibit a more continental climate with warmer summers and harsher winters.[93] Nevertheless, the temperature variations are little as the territory of Latvia is relatively small.[96] Moreover, Latvia's terrain is particularly flat (no more than 350 meters high), thus the Latvian climate is not differentiated by altitude.[96]
Latvia has four pronounced seasons of near-equal length. Winter starts in mid-December and lasts until mid-March. Winters have average temperatures of −6 °C (21 °F) and are characterized by stable snow cover, bright sunshine, and short days. Severe spells of winter weather with cold winds, extreme temperatures of around −30 °C (−22 °F) and heavy snowfalls are common. Summer starts in June and lasts until August. Summers are usually warm and sunny, with cool evenings and nights. Summers have average temperatures of around 19 °C (66 °F), with extremes of 35 °C (95 °F). Spring and autumn bring fairly mild weather.[97]
2019 was the warmest year in the history of weather observation in Latvia with an average temperature +8.1 °C higher.[99]
Environment
Latvia has the fifth highest proportion of land covered by forests in the European Union.
Most of the country is composed of fertile lowland plains and moderate hills. In a typical Latvian landscape, a mosaic of vast forests alternates with fields, farmsteads, and pastures. Arable land is spotted with birch groves and wooded clusters, which afford a habitat for numerous plants and animals. Latvia has hundreds of kilometres of undeveloped seashore—lined by pine forests, dunes, and continuous white sand beaches.[92][100]
Latvia has the fifth highest proportion of land covered by forests in the European Union, after Sweden, Finland, Estonia and Slovenia.[101] Forests account for 3,497,000 ha (8,640,000 acres) or 56% of the total land area.[90]
Latvia has over 12,500 rivers, which stretch for 38,000 km (24,000 mi). Major rivers include theDaugava River,Lielupe,Gauja,Venta, andSalaca, the largest spawning ground forsalmon in the eastern Baltic states. There are 2,256 lakes that are bigger than 1 ha (2.5 acres), with a collective area of 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi).Mires occupy 9.9% of Latvia's territory. Of these, 42% are raised bogs; 49% are fens; and 9% are transitional mires. 70% percent of the mires are untouched by civilization, and they are a refuge for many rare species of plants and animals.[100]
Agricultural areas account for 1,815,900 ha (4,487,000 acres) or 29% of the total land area.[89] With the dismantling of collective farms, the area devoted to farming decreased dramatically – now farms are predominantly small. Approximately 200 farms, occupying 2,750 ha (6,800 acres), are engaged in ecologically pure farming (using no artificial fertilizers or pesticides).[100]
Latvia has a long tradition of conservation. The first laws and regulations were promulgated in the 16th and 17th centuries.[100] There are 706 specially state-level protected natural areas in Latvia: four national parks, one biosphere reserve, 42 nature parks, nine areas of protected landscapes, 260 nature reserves, four strict nature reserves, 355 nature monuments, seven protected marine areas and 24 microreserves.[104] Nationally protected areas account for 12,790 km2 (4,940 sq mi) or around 20% of Latvia's total land area.[91] Latvia's Red Book (Endangered Species List of Latvia), which was established in 1977, contains 112 plant species and 119 animal species. Latvia has ratified the international Washington, Bern, and Ramsare conventions.[100]
The 2012Environmental Performance Index ranks Latvia second, after Switzerland, based on the environmental performance of the country's policies.[105]
Access tobiocapacity in Latvia is much higher than world average. In 2016, Latvia had 8.5 global hectares[106] of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.[107] In 2016 Latvia used 6.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person - theirecological footprint of consumption. This means they use less biocapacity than Latvia contains. As a result, Latvia is running a biocapacity reserve.[106]
Several species of flora and fauna are considered national symbols.Oak (Quercus robur,Latvian:ozols), andlinden (Tilia cordata,Latvian:liepa) are Latvia's national trees and thedaisy (Leucanthemum vulgare,Latvian:pīpene) its national flower. The white wagtail (Motacilla alba,Latvian:baltā cielava) is Latvia's national bird. Its national insect is thetwo-spot ladybird (Adalia bipunctata,Latvian:divpunktu mārīte).Amber, fossilized tree resin, is one of Latvia's most important cultural symbols. In ancient times, amber found along the Baltic Sea coast was sought by Vikings as well as traders from Egypt, Greece and the Roman Empire. This led to the development of theAmber Road.[114]
Thebuilding of theSaeima, the parliament of Latvia, in Riga
The Latvian parliament isunicameral and called theSaeima. It is thelegislature of the Republic of Latvia.[117] The Saeima is also responsible for adopting thestate's budgets, approving the state's accounts, appointing and exercising control of the Government, and taking part in international co-operation.Bills may be initiated by the Government or bymembers of parliament.
Latvia is arepresentative democracy withuniversal suffrage. Membership of the Saeima is based onproportional representation of political parties, with a 5% electoral threshold. Latvia elects 100 members to the Saeima. Parliamentary elections are held at least every four years, but it is within the powers of the prime minister to ask the president to call for an election before the term has elapsed. On avote of no confidence, the Saeima may force a single minister or an entire government to resign.[e]
The Government of Latvia operates as acabinet government, where executive authority is exercised by the prime minister and othercabinet ministers, who head ministries. As the executive branch, the Cabinet is responsible for proposing bills and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies of Latvia. The position of prime minister belongs to the person most likely to command theconfidence of a majority in the Saeima; this is often the current leader of the largestpolitical party or, more effectively, through acoalition of parties. A single party generally does not have sufficient political power in terms of the number of seats to form a cabinet on its own; Saeima has often been ruled bycoalition governments, themselves usuallyminority governments dependent on non-government parties.
Thepresident is elected by theSaeima in a separate election, also held every four years. The president appoints a prime minister who, together with his cabinet, forms theexecutive branch of the government, which has to receive a confidence vote by theSaeima. This system also existed beforeWorld War II.[119] The most senior civil servants are the thirteenSecretaries of State.[120]
Latvia is aunitary state, currently divided into 43 local government units consisting of 36 municipalities (Latvian:novadi) and 7 state cities (Latvian:valstspilsētas) with their own city council and administration:Daugavpils,Jelgava,Jūrmala,Liepāja,Rēzekne,Riga, andVentspils. There are fourhistorical and cultural regions in Latvia –Courland,Latgale,Vidzeme,Zemgale, which are recognised in theConstitution of Latvia.Selonia, a part of Zemgale, is sometimes considered culturally distinct region, but it is not part of any formal division. The borders of historical and cultural regions usually are not explicitly defined and in several sources may vary. In formal divisions, Riga region, which includes the capital and parts of other regions that have a strong relationship with the capital, is also often included in regional divisions; e.g., there are fiveplanning regions of Latvia (Latvian:plānošanas reģioni), which were created in 2009 to promote balanced development of all regions. Under this division Riga region includes large parts of what traditionally is considered Vidzeme, Courland, and Zemgale.Statistical regions of Latvia, established in accordance with the EUNomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, duplicate this division.[124]
The largest city in Latvia is Riga, the second largest city is Daugavpils and the third largest city is Liepaja.
Political culture
In 2010 parliamentaryelection ruling centre-right coalition won 63 out of 100 parliamentary seats. Left-wing oppositionHarmony Centre supported by Latvia's Russian-speaking minority got 29 seats.[125] In November 2013, Latvian Prime MinisterValdis Dombrovskis, in office since 2009, resigned after at least 54 people were killed and dozens injured in thecollapse at a supermarket in Riga.[126]
In 2014 parliamentaryelection was won again by the ruling centre-right coalition formed by theUnity Party, theNational Alliance and theUnion of Greens and Farmers. They got 61 seats and Harmony got 24.[127] In December 2015, country's first female prime minister, in office since January 2014,Laimdota Straujuma resigned.[128] In February 2016, a coalition of Union of Greens and Farmers, The Unity and National Alliance was formed by new Prime MinisterMaris Kucinskis.[129]
In 2018 parliamentaryelection pro-Russian Harmony was again the biggest party securing 23 out of 100 seats, the second and third were the new populist partiesKPV LV andNew Conservative Party. Ruling coalition, comprising the Union of Greens and Farmers, the National Alliance and the Unity party, lost.[130] In January 2019, Latvia got a government led by new Prime MinisterKrisjanis Karins of the centre-rightNew Unity. Karins' coalition was formed by five of the seven parties in parliament, excluding only the pro-Russia Harmony party and the Union of Greens and Farmers.[131] On 15 September 2023,Evika Siliņa became the new prime minister of Latvia, following resignation of former Prime Minister Krišjānis Kariņš previous month. Siliņa’s government is a three-party coalition between her ownNew Unity (JV) party, the Greens and Farmers Union (ZZS), and the social-democratic Progressives (PRO) with total 52 of 100 seats in the parliament.[132]
Latvia has established diplomatic relations with 158 countries. It has 44 diplomatic and consular missions and maintains 34 embassies and 9 permanent representations abroad. There are 37 foreign embassies and 11 international organisations in Latvia's capitalRiga. Latvia hosts one European Union institution, theBody of European Regulators for Electronic Communications (BEREC).[135]
Latvia's foreign policy priorities include co-operation in the Baltic Sea region, European integration, active involvement in international organisations, contribution to European and transatlantic security and defence structures, participation in international civilian and military peacekeeping operations, and development co-operation, particularly the strengthening of stability and democracy in the EU'sEastern Partnership countries.[136][137][138]
Foreign ministers of the Nordic and Baltic countries in Helsinki, 2011
Since the early 1990s, Latvia has been involved in active trilateralBaltic states co-operation with its neighboursEstonia andLithuania, and Nordic-Baltic co-operation with theNordic countries. Latvia is a member of the interparliamentaryBaltic Assembly, the intergovernmentalBaltic Council of Ministers and theCouncil of the Baltic Sea States.[139]Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB-8) is the joint co-operation of the governments of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, and Sweden.[140] Nordic-Baltic Six (NB-6), comprising Nordic-Baltic countries that are European Union member states, is a framework for meetings on EU-related issues. Interparliamentary co-operation between the Baltic Assembly andNordic Council was signed in 1992 and since 2006 annual meetings are held as well as regular meetings on other levels.[140] Joint Nordic-Baltic co-operation initiatives include the education programme NordPlus[141] and mobility programmes for public administration,[142] business and industry[143] and culture.[144] TheNordic Council of Ministers has an office in Riga.[145]
Latvia participates in theNorthern Dimension andBaltic Sea Region Programme, European Union initiatives to foster cross-border co-operation in the Baltic Sea region and Northern Europe. The secretariat of the Northern Dimension Partnership on Culture (NDPC) will be located in Riga.[146] In 2013 Riga hosted the annualNorthern Future Forum, a two-day informal meeting of the prime ministers of the Nordic-Baltic countries and the UK.[147] The Enhanced Partnership in Northern Europe ore-Pine is theU.S. Department of State diplomatic framework for co-operation with the Nordic-Baltic countries.[148]
Since February 2022 Latvia's relations with Russia have deteriorated to the extent that Latvia withdrew its ambassador from Russia and expelled Russia's ambassador to Latvia in January 2023[151] and banned Russians from entering Latvia.
Naval Forces minehunterImantaCVR(T) Scimitar in Latvian service
TheNational Armed Forces (Latvian:Nacionālie bruņotie spēki (NAF)) of Latvia consists of theLand Forces,Naval Forces,Air Force,National Guard,Special Tasks Unit,Military Police,NAF staff Battalion, Training and Doctrine Command, and Logistics Command. Latvia's defence concept is based upon the Swedish-Finnish model of a rapid response force composed of a mobilisation base and a small group of career professionals. From 1 January 2007, Latvia switched to a professional fully contract-based army.[152]
Latvia participates in international peacekeeping and security operations. Latvian armed forces have contributed toNATO and EU military operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1996–2009), Albania (1999), Kosovo (2000–2009), Macedonia (2003), Iraq (2005–2006), Afghanistan (since 2003), Somalia (since 2011) and Mali (since 2013).[153][154][155] Latvia also took part in the US-ledMulti-National Force operation in Iraq (2003–2008)[156] andOSCE missions in Georgia, Kosovo and Macedonia.[157] Latvian armed forces contributed to a UK-ledBattlegroup in 2013 and theNordic Battlegroup in 2015 under theCommon Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) of the European Union.[158] Latvia acts as the lead nation in the coordination of theNorthern Distribution Network for transportation of non-lethalISAF cargo by air and rail to Afghanistan.[159][160][161] It is part of the Nordic Transition Support Unit (NTSU), which renders joint force contributions in support of Afghan security structures ahead of the withdrawal of Nordic and Baltic ISAF forces in 2014.[162] Since 1996 more than 3600 military personnel have participated in international operations,[154] of whom 7 soldiers perished.[163] Per capita, Latvia is one of the largest contributors to international military operations.[164]
Latvian civilian experts have contributed to EU civilian missions: border assistance mission to Moldova and Ukraine (2005–2009), rule of law missions in Iraq (2006 and 2007) and Kosovo (since 2008), police mission in Afghanistan (since 2007) and monitoring mission in Georgia (since 2008).[153]
Since March 2004, when theBaltic states joined NATO, fighter jets of NATO members have been deployed on a rotational basis for theBaltic Air Policing mission atŠiauliai Airport in Lithuania to guard the Baltic airspace. Latvia participates in severalNATO Centres of Excellence: Civil-Military Co-operation in the Netherlands,Cooperative Cyber Defence in Estonia and Energy Security in Lithuania. It plans to establish the NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence in Riga.[165]
Latvia co-operates with Estonia and Lithuania in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives:
Baltic Battalion(BALTBAT) – infantry battalion for participation in international peace support operations, headquartered nearRiga, Latvia;
Future co-operation will include sharing of national infrastructures for training purposes and specialisation of training areas(BALTTRAIN) and collective formation of battalion-sized contingents for use in the NATO rapid-response force.[167] In January 2011, the Baltic states were invited to joinNordic Defence Cooperation, the defence framework of theNordic countries.[168] In November 2012, the three countries agreed to create a joint military staff in 2013.[169]
On 21 April 2022, Latvian Saeima passed amendments developed by the Ministry of Defence for the legislative draft Amendments to the Law on Financing of National Defence, which provide for gradual increase in the defence budget to 2.5% of the country's GDP over the course of the next three year.[170]
More than 56% of leading positions are held by women in Latvia, which ranks first in Europe; Latvia ranks first in the world in women's rights sharing the position with five other European countries according toWorld Bank.[177]
Approximately 206,000non-citizens[179] – includingstateless persons – have limited access to some political rights – only citizens are allowed to participate in parliamentary or municipal elections, although there are no limitations in regards to joining political parties or other political organizations.[180][181] In 2011, theOSCEHigh Commissioner on National Minorities "urged Latvia to allow non-citizens to vote in municipal elections."[182] Additionally, there have been reports of police abuse ofdetainees and arrestees, poor prison conditions and overcrowding, judicial corruption, incidents of violence againstethnic minorities, and societal violence and incidents of government discrimination against homosexuals.[171][183][184]Same-sex marriage is constitutionally prohibited in Latvia.[185][186]
Latvia is a member of theWorld Trade Organization (1999) and theEuropean Union (2004). On 1 January 2014, theeuro became the country's currency, superseding theLats. According to statistics in late 2013, 45% of the population supported the introduction of the euro, while 52% opposed it.[187] Following the introduction of the Euro, Eurobarometer surveys in January 2014 showed support for the euro to be around 53%, close to the European average.[188]
Since the year 2000, Latvia has had one of the highest (GDP) growth rates in Europe.[189] However, the chiefly consumption-driven growth in Latvia resulted in the collapse of Latvian GDP in late 2008 and early 2009, exacerbated by the global economic crisis, shortage of credit and huge money resources used for the bailout ofParex Bank.[190] The Latvian economy fell 18% in the first three months of 2009, the biggest fall in the European Union.[191][192]
The economic crisis of 2009 proved earlier assumptions that the fast-growing economy was heading for implosion of theeconomic bubble, because it was driven mainly by growth of domesticconsumption, financed by a serious increase of privatedebt, as well as a negative foreigntrade balance. The prices of real estate, which rose 150% from 2004 to 2006, was a significant contributor to the economic bubble.[193]
Privatisation in Latvia is almost complete. Virtually all of the previously state-owned small and medium companies have been privatised, leaving only a small number of politically sensitive large state companies. The private sector accounted for 70% of the country's GDP in 2006.[194]
Foreign investment in Latvia is still modest compared with the levels in north-central Europe. A law expanding the scope for selling land, including to foreigners, was passed in 1997. Representing 10.2% of Latvia's total foreign direct investment, American companies invested $127 million in 1999. In the same year, the United States of America exported $58.2 million of goods and services to Latvia and imported $87.9 million. Eager to join Western economic institutions like theWorld Trade Organization,OECD, and theEuropean Union, Latvia signed a Europe Agreement with the EU in 1995—with a 4-year transition period. Latvia and the United States have signed treaties on investment, trade, and intellectual property protection and avoidance of double taxation.[195][196]
In 2010, Latvia launched a Residence by Investment program (Golden Visa) in order to attract foreign investors and make local economy benefit from it. This program allows investors to get a Latvian residence permit by investing at least €250,000 in property or in an enterprise with at least 50 employees and an annual turnover of at least €10M.[citation needed]
The Latvian economy entered a phase of fiscal contraction during the second half of 2008 after an extended period of credit-based speculation and unrealistic appreciation in real estate values. The national account deficit for 2007, for example, represented more than 22% of the GDP for the year while inflation was running at 10%.[197]
Latvia's unemployment rate rose sharply in this period from a low of 5.4% in November 2007 to over 22%.[198] In April 2010 Latvia had the highest unemployment rate in the EU, at 22.5%, ahead of Spain, which had 19.7%.[199]
Paul Krugman, the Nobel Laureate in economics for 2008, wrote in hisNew York Times Op-Ed column on 15 December 2008:
The most acute problems are on Europe's periphery, where many smaller economies are experiencing crises strongly reminiscent of past crises in Latin America and Asia: Latvia is the new Argentina[200]
However, by 2010, commentators[201][202] noted signs of stabilisation in the Latvian economy. Rating agencyStandard & Poor's raised its outlook on Latvia's debt from negative to stable.[201] Latvia's current account, which had been in deficit by 27% in late 2006 was in surplus in February 2010.[201] Kenneth Orchard, senior analyst atMoody's Investors Service argued that:
The strengthening regional economy is supporting Latvian production and exports, while the sharp swing in the current account balance suggests that the country's 'internal devaluation' is working.[203]
TheIMF concluded the First Post-Program Monitoring Discussions with the Republic of Latvia in July 2012 announcing that Latvia's economy has been recovering strongly since 2010, following the deep downturn in 2008–09. Real GDP growth of 5.5 percent in 2011 was underpinned by export growth and a recovery in domestic demand. The growth momentum has continued into 2012 and 2013 despite deteriorating external conditions, and the economy is expected to expand by 4.1 percent in 2014. The unemployment rate has receded from its peak of more than 20 percent in 2010 to around 9.3 percent in 2014.[204]
Economic recovery
GDP at current prices rose from €23.7 billion in 2014 to €30.5 billion in 2019. The employment rate rose in the same period from 59.1% to 65% with unemployment falling from 10.8% to 6.5%.[205]
The transport sector is around 14% of GDP. Transit between Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan as well as other Asian countries and the West used to be large.[206]
The four biggest ports of Latvia are located inRiga,Ventspils,Liepāja andSkulte. Most transit traffic uses these and half the cargo is crude oil and oil products.[206]Free port of Ventspils is one of the busiest ports in theBaltic states. Apart from road and railway connections, Ventspils is also linked to oil extraction fields and prior to 2022, transportation routes of Russian Federation via system of two pipelines fromPolotsk, Belarus.[citation needed]
Riga International Airport is the busiest airport in theBaltic states with 7.8 million passengers in 2019. It has direct flight to over 80 destinations in 30 countries. The only other airport handling regular commercial flights isLiepāja International Airport.airBaltic is the Latvian flag carrier airline and a low-cost carrier with hubs in all threeBaltic States, but main base inRiga, Latvia.[207]
Latvian Railway's main network consists of 1,860 km of which 1,826 km is 1,520 mmRussian gauge railway of which 251 km are electrified, making it the longest railway network in theBaltic States. Latvia's railway network is currently incompatible with Europeanstandard gauge lines.[208] However,Rail Baltica railway, linking Helsinki-Tallinn-Riga-Kaunas-Warsaw is under construction and is set to be completed in 2026.[209]
National road network in Latvia totals 1675 km of main roads, 5473 km of regional roads and 13 064 km of local roads. Municipal roads in Latvia totals 30 439 km of roads and 8039 km of streets.[210] The best known roads areA1 (European route E67), connectingWarsaw andTallinn, as well asEuropean route E22, connectingVentspils andTerehova. In 2017 there were a total of 803,546 licensed vehicles in Latvia.[211]
Latvia has three large hydroelectric power stations inPļaviņu HES (908 MW),Rīgas HES (402 MW) andĶeguma HES-2 (248 MW).[212] In recent years a couple of dozen of wind farms as well as biogas or biomass power stations of different scale have been built in Latvia.[213] In 2022, the Latvian Prime Minister announced about the planned investments of 1 billion euros in the newwind farms and the completed project will expectedly provide additional 800 MW of capacity.[214]
Latvia operatesInčukalns underground gas storage facility, one of the largestunderground gas storage facilities in Europe and the only one in the Baltic states. Unique geological conditions at Inčukalns and other locations in Latvia are particularly suitable for underground gas storage.[215]
Population of Latvia (in millions) from 1920 to 2014
Thetotal fertility rate (TFR) in 2018 was estimated to be 1.61 children born/woman, which is lower than the replacement rate of 2.1. In 2012, 45.0% of births were to unmarried women.[216] The life expectancy in 2013 was estimated at 73.2 years (68.1 years male, 78.5 years female).[197] As of 2015, Latvia is estimated to have the lowest male-to-female ratio in the world, at 0.85 males per female.[217] In 2017, there were 1,054,433 females and 895,683 males living in Latvian territory. Every year, more boys are born than girls. Up to the age of 39, there are more males than females. Above the age of 70, there are 2.3 times as many females as males.
In some cities, includingDaugavpils andRēzekne, ethnic Latvians constitute a minority of the total population. Despite a steadily increasing proportion of ethnic Latvians for more than a decade, ethnic Latvians also still make up slightly less than a half of the population of the capital city of Latvia –Riga.[citation needed]
The share of ethnic Latvians declined from 77% (1,467,035) in 1935 to 52% (1,387,757) in 1989.[219] In the context of a decreasing overall population, there were fewer Latvians in 2011 than in 1989, but their share of the population was larger – 1,285,136 (62.1% of the population).[220]
The majority of Latvia's population are Latvians, who are an ethnic Baltic people. The country also has a significant Russian minority, as well as smaller populations of Ukrainians, Belarusians, and other Slavic peoples. These ethnic groups are all descended from peoples who settled in Latvia during the centuries of Russian and Soviet rule.
Latvia's ethnic diversity is a result of a number of factors, including a long history of foreign rule, its location on the Baltic Sea trade route, and its proximity to other Slavic countries. The Russian Empire conquered Latvia in the 18th century and ruled the country for over 200 years. During this time, the Russian authorities encouraged the settlement of Russian colonists in Latvia. After the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1918, Latvia became an independent country. However, the country was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940 and remained under Soviet rule until 1991. The Soviets expelled some groups and resettled others in Latvia, especially Russians. After 1991 many of the expellees returned to Latvia.[221]
As a result of deteriorating relations with Russia, Latvia has decided it does not want Russian citizens in Latvia who will not integrate. In late 2023 it is expected that around 5-6,000 Russians will be returned to Russia as they have made little effort to learn the Latvian language, integrate with Latvia, or apply to become Latvian citizens.[222]
The sole official language of Latvia isLatvian, which belongs to theBaltic language sub-group of theBalto-Slavic branch of theIndo-European language family. Another notable language of Latvia is the nearly extinctLivonian language of theFinnic branch of theUralic language family, which enjoys protection by law;Latgalian – as a dialect of Latvian is also protected by Latvian law but as a historical variation of the Latvian language.Russian, which was widely spoken during the Soviet period, is still the most widely used minority language by far (in 2023, 37.7% spoke it as their mother tongue and 34.6% spoke it at home, including people who were not ethnically Russian).[16]While it is now required that all school students learn Latvian, schools also include English, German, French and Russian in their curricula. English is also widely accepted in Latvia in business and tourism. As of 2014[update] there were 109 schools for minorities that use Russian as the language of instruction (27% of all students) for 40% of subjects (the remaining 60% of subjects are taught in Latvian).
On 18 February 2012, Latvia held aconstitutional referendum on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language.[223] According to the Central Election Commission, 74.8% voted against, 24.9% voted for and the voter turnout was 71.1%.[224]
From 2019, instruction in theRussian language was gradually discontinued in private colleges anduniversities in Latvia, as well as general instruction in Latvian publichigh schools,[225][226] except for subjects related to culture and history of the Russian minority, such as Russian language and literature classes.[227] All schools, including pre-schools, still using the Russian language in 2023 need to transition to using Latvian in all classes within 3 years.[228]
In theEurobarometer Poll 2010, 38% of Latvian citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", while 48% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 11% stated that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force".
Lutheranism was more prominent before the Soviet occupation, when it was adhered to by about 60% of the population, a reflection of the country's strong historical links with theNordic countries, and to the influence of theHansa in particular and Germany in general. Since then, Lutheranism has declined to a slightly greater extent than Roman Catholicism in all threeBaltic states. The Evangelical Lutheran Church, with an estimated 600,000 members in 1956, was affected most adversely. An internal document of 18 March 1987, near the end of communist rule, spoke of an active membership that had shrunk to only 25,000 in Latvia, but the faith has since experienced a revival.[230]
Latvia has been seeking for a number of years to separate the Latvian Orthodox Church from Moscow, stating that longstanding ties to Russia pose “national security concerns”.[233] This was achieved in September 2022 with a law removing all influence or power over the Orthodox Church from non-Latvians, which would include the patriarch of Moscow.[234]
Latvia closed 131 schools between 2006 and 2010, which is a 12.9% decline, and in the same period enrolment in educational institutions has fallen by over 54,000 people, a 10.3% decline.[236]
Latvian policy in science and technology has set out the long-term goal of transitioning from labor-consuming economy to knowledge-based economy.[237] By 2020 the government aims to spend 1.5% of GDP on research and development, with half of the investments coming from the private sector. Latvia plans to base the development of its scientific potential on existing scientific traditions, particularly in organic chemistry, medical chemistry, genetic engineering, physics, materials science and information technologies.[238] The greatest number of patents, both nationwide and abroad, are in medical chemistry.[239] Latvia was ranked 42nd in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[240]
The Latvian healthcare system is auniversal programme, largely funded through government taxation.[241] It is among the lowest-ranked healthcare systems in Europe, due to excessive waiting times for treatment, insufficient access to the latest medicines, and other factors.[242] There were 59 hospitals in Latvia in 2009, down from 94 in 2007 and 121 in 2006.[243][244][245]
Traditional Latvianfolklore, especially the dance of thefolk songs, dates back well over a thousand years. More than 1.2 million texts and 30,000 melodies of folk songs have been identified.[246]
In the 19th century, Latvian nationalist movements emerged. They promoted Latvian culture and encouraged Latvians to take part in cultural activities. The 19th century and beginning of the 20th century is often regarded by Latvians as a classical era of Latvian culture. Posters show the influence of other European cultures, for example, works of artists such as the Baltic-German artistBernhard Borchert and the FrenchRaoul Dufy.[247] With the onset of World War II, many Latvian artists and other members of the cultural elite fled the country yet continued to produce their work, largely for a Latvian émigré audience.[248]
Participants of the Latvian Song and Dance Festival in 2018
TheLatvian Song and Dance Festival is an important event inLatvian culture and social life. It has been held since 1873, normally every five years. Approximately 30,000 performers altogether participate in the event.[249] Folk songs and classical choir songs are sung, with emphasis ona cappella singing, though modern popular songs have recently been incorporated into the repertoire as well.[250]
After incorporation into theSoviet Union, Latvian artists and writers were forced to follow thesocialist realism style of art. During the Soviet era, music became increasingly popular, with the most popular being songs from the 1980s. At this time, songs often made fun of the characteristics of Soviet life and were concerned about preserving Latvian identity. This aroused popular protests against the USSR and also gave rise to an increasing popularity of poetry. Since independence, theatre,scenography,choir music, and classical music have become the most notable branches of Latvian culture.[251]
During July 2014,Riga hosted the eighthWorld Choir Games as it played host to over 27,000 choristers representing over 450 choirs and over 70 countries. The festival is the biggest of its kind in the world and is held every two years in a different host city.[252]
Latvian cuisine typically consists of agricultural products, with meat featuring in most main meal dishes. Fish is commonly consumed due to Latvia's location on the Baltic Sea. Latvian cuisine has been influenced by neighbouring countries. Common ingredients in Latvian recipes are found locally, such as potatoes, wheat, barley, cabbage, onions, eggs, and pork. Latvian food is generally quite fatty and uses few spices.[254]
Grey peas with speck are generally considered as staple foods of Latvians.Sorrel soup (skābeņu zupa) is also consumed by Latvians.[255] Rye bread is considered the nationalstaple.[256]
Latvia has participated successfully in bothWinter andSummer Olympics. The most successful Olympic athlete in the history of independent Latvia has beenMāris Štrombergs, who became a two-time Olympic champion in 2008 and 2012 at Men's BMX.[259]
In Boxing,Mairis Briedis is the first and only Latvian to date, to win a boxing world title, having held the WBC cruiserweight title from 2017 to 2018, the WBO cruiserweight title in 2019, and the IBF / The Ring magazine cruiserweight titles in 2020.
^On 21 August 1991, after theSoviet coup d'état attempt, the Supreme Council adopted a Constitutional law, "On statehood of the Republic of Latvia", declaring Article 5 of the Declaration to be invalid, thus ending the transitional period and restoring de facto independence.
^"59. In order to fulfil their duties, the Prime Minister and other Ministers must have the confidence of the Saeima and they shall be accountable to the Saeima for their actions. If the Saeima expresses no confidence in the Prime Minister, the entire Cabinet shall resign. If there is an expression of no confidence in an individual Minister, then the Minister shall resign and another person shall be invited to replace them by the Prime Minister."[118]
^ab"History". Embassy of Finland, Riga. 9 July 2008. Archived fromthe original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved2 September 2010.Latvia declared independence on 21 August 1991...The decision to restore diplomatic relations took effect on 29 August 1991
^"Latvia in Brief"(PDF). Latvian Institute. 2012. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 8 November 2012. Retrieved12 May 2011.
^"Baltic Online". The University of Texas at Austin.Archived from the original on 5 August 2011. Retrieved12 May 2011.
^"Data: 3000 BC to 1500 BC".The European Ethnohistory Database. The Ethnohistory Project. Archived fromthe original on 22 June 2006. Retrieved6 August 2006.
^A History of Rome, M Cary and HH Scullard, p455-457, Macmillan Press,ISBN0-333-27830-5
^Johann Sehwers (1918).Die deutschen Lehnwörter im Lettischen: Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der hohen philosophischen Fakultät I der Universität Zürich (in German). Berichthaus.
^Ceaser, Ray A. (June 2001)."Duchy of Courland". University of Washington. Archived fromthe original on 2 March 2003. Retrieved11 September 2017.
^H. Strods, "'Dobrye Shvedskie Vremena' v Istoriografii Latvii (Konets XVIII V. – 70-E Gg. XX V.). ["'The good Swedish times' in Latvian historiography: from the late 18th century to the 1970s"]Skandinavskiy Sbornik, 1985, Vol. 29, pp. 188–199
^J. T. Kotilaine (1999). "Riga's Trade With its Muscovite Hinterland in the Seventeenth Century".Journal of Baltic Studies.30 (2):129–161.doi:10.1080/01629779900000031.ISSN0162-9778.
^Žemaitis, Augustinas."Lutherans".OnLatvia.com.Archived from the original on 25 September 2022. Retrieved27 August 2022.
^Ereminas, Gintautas."Latviai".Vle.lt. Retrieved27 August 2022.
^V. Stanley Vardys (1987). "The Role of the Churches in the Maintenance of Regional and National Identity in the Baltic Republics".Journal of Baltic Studies.18 (3):287–300.doi:10.1080/01629778700000141.
^More-detailed discussion in Daina Stukuls Eglitis,Imagining the Nation: History, Modernity, and Revolution in Latvia State College PA: Pennsylvania State Press, 2010), 41-46.ISBN9780271045627
^Commercio Michele E (2003). "Emotion and Blame in Collective Action: Russian Voice in Kyrgyzstan and Latvia".Political Science Quarterly.124 (3):489–512.doi:10.1002/j.1538-165X.2009.tb00657.x.S2CID55002696.
^Rudzīte; Boikova2; Dreijers; Jakubāne; Parele; Pilāte; Rudzītis (2018)."The New Red List of the molluscs of Latvia"(PDF).Faculty of Biology, University of Latvia.Archived(PDF) from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved6 June 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^Bank, European Central (31 January 2023)."Latvia (since 1 January 2014)".ecb.europa.eu.Archived from the original on 10 September 2023. Retrieved19 September 2023.
^Commercio, Michele E. (1 March 2008). "Systems of Partial Control: Ethnic Dynamics in Post-Soviet Estonia and Latvia".Studies in Comparative International Development.43 (1):81–100.doi:10.1007/s12116-007-9013-5.ISSN1936-6167.S2CID26143200.
^"Live births outside marriage". Eurostat – Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table. 17 October 2013. Archived fromthe original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved3 January 2014.
^"Music".Latvian Song & Dance Festival.Archived from the original on 6 April 2020. Retrieved8 April 2020.
^Smith Graham, ed.The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994. Latvia has artistically-diverse curricula and, thus, more-diverse public arts compared to the other Baltic countries; Latvia and the UK are among the European countries where there are requirements for a musically diverse curriculum. Richard Letts et al.,The Protection and Promotion of Musical Diversity (UNESCO: International Music Council, 2006), 95. Online athttp://www.imc-cim.org/programmes/imc_diversity_report.pdfArchived 29 April 2019 at theWayback Machine
Arveds, Švābe (1949).The Story of Latvia: A Historical Survey. Stockholm: Latvian National Foundation.OCLC2961684.
Bleiere, Daina; and Ilgvars Butulis; Antonijs Zunda; Aivars Stranga; Inesis Feldmanis (2006).History of Latvia: the 20th century. Rīga: Jumava.ISBN9984-38-038-6.OCLC70240317.
Cimdiņa, Ausma; Deniss Hanovs, eds. (2011).Latvia and Latvians: A People and a State in Ideas, Images and Symbols. Rīga: Zinātne Publishers.ISBN978-9984-808-83-3.
Dreifelds, Juris (1996).Latvia in Transition. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-55537-1.
Dzenovska, Dace.School of Europeanness: Tolerance and other lessons in political liberalism in Latvia (Cornell University Press, 2018).
Hazans, Mihails. "Emigration from Latvia: Recent trends and economic impact." inCoping with emigration in Baltic and East European countries (2013) pp: 65–110.onlineArchived 9 April 2023 at theWayback Machine
Meyendorff, Alexander Feliksovich (1922)."Latvia" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed.). London & New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.
Plakans, Andrejs (1998).Historical Dictionary of Latvia (2nd ed.). Lanham: The Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0-8108-5515-1.
Plakans, Andrejs (2010).The A to Z of Latvia. Lanham: The Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0-8108-7209-7.
Plakans, Andrejs (1995).The Latvians: A Short History. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press.ISBN978-0-8179-9302-3.
Pabriks, Artis, and Aldis Purs.Latvia: the challenges of change (Routledge, 2013).
Rutkis, Jānis, ed. (1967).Latvia: Country & People. Stockholm: Latvian National Foundation.OCLC457313.
Turlajs, Jānis (2012).Latvijas vēstures atlants. Rīga: Karšu izdevniecība Jāņa sēta.ISBN978-9984-07-614-0.
Baltic states
Auers, Daunis.Comparative politics and government of the Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the 21st century (Springer, 2015).
Bojtár, Endre (1999).Forward to the Past – A Cultural History of the Baltic People. Budapest: Central European University Press.ISBN978-963-9116-42-9.
Hiden, John; Patrick Salmon (1991).The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century. London: Longman.ISBN0-582-08246-3.
Hiden, John; Vahur Made; David J. Smith (2008).The Baltic Question during the Cold War. London: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-56934-7.
Kasekamp, Andres (2010).A History of the Baltic States. London: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0-230-01940-9.
Jacobsson, Bengt (2009).The European Union and the Baltic States: Changing forms of governance. London: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-48276-9.
Lane, Thomas, et al.The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (Routledge, 2013).
Lehti, Marko; David J. Smith, eds. (2003).Post-Cold War Identity Politics – Northern and Baltic Experiences. London/Portland: Frank Cass Publishers.ISBN0-7146-8351-5.
Lieven, Anatol (1994).The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Path to Independence (2nd ed.). New Haven/London: Yale University Press.ISBN0-300-05552-8.
Steen, Anton.Between past and future: elites, democracy and the state in post-communist countries: a comparison of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (Routledge, 2019).
Cheskin, Ammon. "Exploring Russian-speaking identity from below: The case of Latvia."Journal of Baltic Studies 44.3 (2013): 287–312.onlineArchived 25 June 2021 at theWayback Machine
Cheskin, Ammon.Russian-Speakers in Post-Soviet Latvia: Discursive Identity Strategies (Edinburgh University Press, 2016).
![Location of Latvia (dark green) – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green) – [Legend]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEU-Latvia.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_-_geograph.org.uk_-_667223.jpg)
_Scimitar_In_Latvia.jpg)
