Latin translations of the 12th century were spurred by a major search by European scholars for new learning unavailable in western Europeat the time; their search led them to areas of southern Europe, particularly incentral Spain andSicily, which recently had come under Christian rule following their reconquest in the late 11th century. These areas had been underMuslim rule for a considerable time, and still had substantial Arabic-speaking populations to support their search. The combination of this accumulated knowledge and the substantial numbers of Arabic-speaking scholars there made these areas intellectually attractive, as well as culturally and politically accessible toLatin scholars.^[2] A typical story is that ofGerard of Cremona (c. 1114–87), who is said to have made his way to Toledo, well after its reconquest by Christians in 1085, because he:

arrived at a knowledge of each part of [philosophy] according to the study of the Latins, nevertheless, because of his love for theAlmagest, which he did not find at all amongst the Latins, he made his way toToledo, where seeing an abundance of books in Arabic on every subject, and pitying the poverty he had experienced among the Latins concerning these subjects, out of his desire to translate he thoroughly learnt the Arabic language.^[3]

Many Christian theologians were highly suspicious of ancient philosophies and especially of the attempts to synthesize them with Christian doctrines.St. Jerome, for example, was hostile toAristotle, andSt. Augustine had little interest in exploring philosophy, only applying logic to theology.^[4] For centuries, ancient Greek ideas in Western Europe were all but non-existent. Only a few monasteries had Greek works, and even fewer of them copied these works.^[5]

There was a brief period of revival, when theAnglo-Saxon monkAlcuin and others reintroduced some Greek ideas during theCarolingian Renaissance.^[6] AfterCharlemagne's death, however, intellectual life again fell into decline. Excepting a few persons promotingBoethius, such asGerbert of Aurillac, philosophical thought was developed little in Europe for about two centuries.^[7] By the 12th century, however,scholastic thought was beginning to develop, leading to the rise ofuniversities throughout Europe. These universities gathered what little Greek thought had been preserved over the centuries, including Boethius' commentaries on Aristotle. They also served as places of discussion for new ideas coming from new translations from Arabic throughout Europe.^[8]

By the 12th century,Toledo, in Spain, had fallen from Arab hands in 1085, Sicily in 1091, and Jerusalem in 1099.^[9] The small population of theCrusader Kingdoms contributed very little to the translation efforts, though Sicily, still largely Greek-speaking, was more productive. Sicilians, however, were less influenced by Arabic than the other regions and instead are noted more for their translations directly from Greek to Latin. Spain, on the other hand, was an ideal place for translation from Arabic to Latin because of a combination of rich Latin and Arab cultures living side by side.^[10]

Unlike the interest in the literature and history ofclassical antiquity during theRenaissance, 12th century translators sought newscientific,philosophical and, to a lesser extent, religious texts. The latter concern was reflected in a renewed interest in translations of the GreekChurch Fathers intoLatin, a concern with translating Jewish teachings fromHebrew, and an interest in theQur'an and otherIslamic religious texts.^[11] In addition, someArabic literature was also translated into Latin.^[12]

Just before the burst of translations in the 12th century,Constantine the African, a Christian fromCarthage who studied medicine inEgypt and ultimately became a monk at the monastery ofMonte Cassino in Italy, translatedmedical works from Arabic. Constantine's many translations includedAli ibn Abbas al-Majusi's medical encyclopediaThe Complete Book of the Medical Art (asLiber Pantegni),^[13] the ancient medicine ofHippocrates andGalen as adapted byArabic physicians,^[14] and theIsagoge ad Tegni Galeni^[15] byHunayn ibn Ishaq (Johannitius) and his nephew Hubaysh ibn al-Hasan.^[16] Other medical works he translated includeIsaac Israeli ben Solomon'sLiber Febribus, Liber de Dietis universalibus et particularibus andLiber de Urinis; Ishaq ibn Imran'spsychological workal-Maqala fi al-Malikhukiya asDe Melancolia; andIbn al-Jazzar'sDe Gradibus, Viaticum, Liber de Stomacho, De Elephantiasi, De Coitu andDe Oblivione.^[15]

Sicily had been part of the Byzantine Empire until 878, was underMuslim control from 878–1060, and came under Norman control between 1060 and 1090. As a consequence the NormanKingdom of Sicily maintained a trilingual bureaucracy, which made it an ideal place for translations. Sicily also maintained relations with theGreek East, which allowed for exchange of ideas and manuscripts.^[17]

A copy ofPtolemy'sAlmagest was brought back to Sicily byHenry Aristippus, as a gift from the Emperor toKing William I. Aristippus, himself, translatedPlato'sMeno andPhaedo into Latin, but it was left to an anonymous student at Salerno to travel to Sicily and translate theAlmagest, as well as several works byEuclid, from Greek to Latin.^[18] Although the Sicilians generally translated directly from the Greek, when Greek texts were not available, they would translate from Arabic.Admiral Eugene of Sicily translated Ptolemy'sOptics into Latin, drawing on his knowledge of all three languages in the task.^[19] Accursius ofPistoja's translations included the works ofGalen andHunayn ibn Ishaq.^[20] Gerard de Sabloneta translatedAvicenna'sThe Canon of Medicine andal-Razi'sAlmansor.Fibonacci presented the first complete European account of theHindu–Arabic numeral system fromArabic sources in hisLiber Abaci (1202).^[13] TheAphorismi byMasawaiyh (Mesue) was translated by an anonymous translator in late 11th or early 12th century Italy.^[21]

James of Venice, who probably spent some years in Constantinople, translated Aristotle'sPosterior Analytics from Greek into Latin in the mid-12th century,^[22] thus making the complete Aristotelian logical corpus, theOrganon, available in Latin for the first time.

In 13th centuryPadua, Bonacosa translatedAverroes' medical workKitab al-Kulliyyat asColliget,^[23] andJohn of Capua translated theKitab al-Taysir byIbn Zuhr (Avenzoar) asTheisir. In 13th centurySicily,Faraj ben Salem translatedRhazes'al-Hawi asContinens as well asIbn Butlan'sTacuinum Sanitatis. Also in 13th century Italy, Simon of Genoa and Abraham Tortuensis translatedAbulcasis'Al-Tasrif asLiber Servitoris, Alcoati'sCongregatio sive Liber de Oculis, and theLiber de Simplicibus Medicamentis by apseudo-Serapion^[24]

As early as the end of the 10th century, European scholars travelled to Spain to study. Most notable among these wasGerbert of Aurillac (later Pope Sylvester II) whostudied mathematics in the region of theSpanish March aroundBarcelona. Translations, however, did not begin in Spain until after 1085 when Toledo was reconquered by Christians.^[25] The early translators in Spain focused heavily onscientific works, especiallymathematics andastronomy, with a second area of interest including theQur'an and otherIslamic texts.^[26] Spanish collections included many scholarly works written in Arabic, so translators worked almost exclusively from Arabic, rather than Greek texts, often in cooperation with a local speaker of Arabic.^[27]

One of the more important translation projects was sponsored byPeter the Venerable, theabbot ofCluny. In 1142 he called uponRobert of Ketton andHerman of Carinthia,Peter of Poitiers, and aMuslim known only as "Mohammed" to produce the first Latin translation of the Qur'an (theLex Mahumet pseudoprophete).^[28]

Translations were produced throughout Spain andProvence.Plato of Tivoli worked inCatalonia, Herman of Carinthia in Northern Spain and across thePyrenees inLanguedoc,Hugh of Santalla inAragon, Robert of Ketton inNavarre andRobert of Chester inSegovia.^[29] The most important center of translation was the great cathedral library ofToledo.

Plato of Tivoli's translations into Latin includeal-Battani's astronomical andtrigonometrical workDe Motu Stellarum,Abraham bar Hiyya'sLiber Embadorum,Theodosius of Bithynia'sSpherics, andArchimedes'Measurement of a Circle. Robert of Chester's translations into Latin includedal-Khwarizmi'sAlgebra and astronomical tables (also containing trigonometric tables).^[30] Abraham of Tortosa's translations includeSerapion the Younger'sLiber de Simplicibus Medicamentis andAbulcasis'al-Tasrif asLiber Servitoris.^[31] In 1126,Muhammad al-Fazari'sGreat Sindhind (based on theSanskrit works ofSurya Siddhanta andBrahmagupta'sBrāhmasphuṭasiddhānta) was translated into Latin.^[32]

In addition to philosophical and scientific literature, the Jewish writerPetrus Alphonsi translated a collection of 33 tales fromArabic literature intoLatin. Some of the tales he drew on were from thePanchatantra andArabian Nights, such as the story cycle of "Sinbad the Sailor".^[33] ThePseudo-PlatonicBook of the Cow, a 9th-century Arabic work onnatural magic, was translated into Latin in the 12th century, probably in Spain.^[34]

Toledo, with a large population of Arabic-speaking Christians (Mozarabs) had been an important center of learning since as early as the end of the 10th century, when European scholars traveled to Spain to study subjects that were not readily available in the rest of Europe. Among the early translators at Toledo were an Avendauth (who some have identified withAbraham ibn Daud), who translatedAvicenna's encyclopedia, theKitāb al-Shifa (The Book of Healing), in cooperation withDomingo Gundisalvo, Archdeacon of Cuéllar.^[35] The translating efforts at Toledo are often overemphasized into a “school of translation,” however the representation of Toledo translating activity creates a false sense that a formal school arose around the Archbishop Raymond. Only one translation, byJohn of Seville, can be definitively dedicated to the archbishop. It is more accurate to consider Toledo as a geographically bilingual environment where local interests were favorable to translation efforts, making it a practical and appealing location for translators to work. As a result, many translators became active in the area and Toledo became the focus of translating activity.^[36]

However translating efforts were not properly organized until Toledo was reconquered by the Christian forces in 1085.Raymond of Toledo started the first translation efforts at the library of theCathedral of Toledo, where he led a team of translators that included Mozarabic Toledans, Jewish scholars,Madrasa teachers and monks from theOrder of Cluny. They worked in the translation of many works from Arabic into Castilian, from Castilian into Latin, or directly from Arabic into Latin or Greek, and also made available important texts from Arabic and Hebrew philosophers who the Archbishop deemed important for an understanding ofAristotle.^[37] As a result of their activities, the cathedral became a translations center known as theEscuela de Traductores de Toledo (Toledo School of Translators), which was on a scale and importance not matched in the history of western culture.^[38]

The most productive of the Toledo translators at that time wasGerard of Cremona,^[39] who translated 87 books,^[40] includingPtolemy'sAlmagest, many of the works ofAristotle, including hisPosterior Analytics,Physics,On the Heavens,On Generation and Corruption, andMeteorology,al-Khwarizmi'sOn Algebra and Almucabala,Archimedes'On the Measurement of the Circle,Euclid'sElements of Geometry,Jabir ibn Aflah'sElementa Astronomica,^[30]al-Kindi'sOn Optics,al-Farghani'sOn Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions,al-Farabi'sOn the Classification of the Sciences, thechemical andmedical works ofal-Razi (Rhazes),^[13] the works ofThabit ibn Qurra andHunayn ibn Ishaq,^[41] and the works ofal-Zarqali,Jabir ibn Aflah, theBanu Musa,Abu Kamil,Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, andIbn al-Haytham (Not including theBook of Optics, because the catalog of the works of Gerard of Cremona does not list that title; however the Risner compilation ofOpticae Thesaurus Septem Libri also includes a work by Witelo and alsode Crepusculis, which Risner incorrectly attributed to Alhazen, and whichwas translated by Gerard of Cremona).^[42] The medical works he translated includeHaly Abenrudian'sExpositio ad Tegni Galeni;Practica, Brevarium Medicine byYuhanna ibn Sarabiyun (Serapion);Alkindus'De Gradibus;Rhazes'Liber ad Almansorem, Liber Divisionum, Introductio in Medicinam, De egritudinibus iuncturarum, Antidotarium andPractica Puerorum;Isaac Israeli ben Solomon'sDe Elementis andDe Definitionibus;^[21]Abulcasis'Al-Tasrif asChirurgia;Avicenna'sThe Canon of Medicine asLiber Canonis; andLiber de Medicamentis Simplicus byAbenguefit.^[23] At the close of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries,Mark of Toledo translated theQur'an (once again) and variousmedical works.^[43] He also translatedHunayn ibn Ishaq's medical workLiber Isagogarum.^[23]

Under KingAlfonso X of Castile, Toledo rose even higher in importance as a translation center. By insisting that the translated output was "llanos de entender" ("easy to understand"),^[44] they reached a much wider audience both within Spain and in other European countries, as many scholars from places like Italy, Germany, England or the Netherlands, who had moved to Toledo in order to translate medical, religious, classical and philosophical texts, brought back to their countries the acquired knowledge. Others were selected and hired with very high salaries by the King himself from many places in Spain, like Seville or Córdoba and foreign places like Gascony or Paris.

Michael Scot (c. 1175–1232)^[45] translated the works of (Alpetragius)al-Betrugi' On the Motions of the Heavens in 1217,^[13] andAverroes' influential commentaries on the scientific works ofAristotle.^[46]

David the Jew (c. 1228–1245) translated the works ofal-Razi (Rhazes) into Latin.Arnaldus de Villa Nova's (1235–1313) translations include the works ofGalen andAvicenna^[47] (Including hisMaqala fi Ahkam al-Adwiya al-Qalbiya asDe Viribus Cordis), theDe Medicinis Simplicibus byAbu al-Salt (Albuzali),^[23] andCosta ben Luca'sDe Physicis Ligaturis.^[21]

In 13th century Portugal,Giles of Santarém translatedRhazes'De Secretis Medicine, Aphorismi Rasis andMesue'sDe Secretis Medicine. InMurcia, Rufin ofAlexandria translated theLiber questionum medicinalium discentium in medicina byHunayn ibn Ishaq (Hunen), and Dominicus Marrochinus translated theEpistola de cognitione infirmatum oculorum byAli Ibn Isa (Jesu Haly).^[23] In 14th centuryLerida, John Jacobi translated Alcoati's medical workLibre de la figura del uyl intoCatalan and then Latin.^[24]

Willem van Moerbeke, known in the English speaking world asWilliam of Moerbeke (c. 1215–1286) was a prolific medieval translator of philosophical, medical, and scientific texts from Greek into Latin. At the request of Aquinas, so it is assumed—the source document is not clear—he undertook a complete translation of the works ofAristotle or, for some portions, a revision of existing translations. He was the first translator of thePolitics (c. 1260) from Greek into Latin. The reason for the request was that the many copies of Aristotle in Latin then in circulation had originated in Spain (seeGerard of Cremona). These earlier translations were assumed to have been influenced by the rationalistAverroes, who was suspected of being a source of philosophical and theological errors found in the earlier translations of Aristotle. Moerbeke's translations have had a long history; they were already standard classics by the 14th century, when Henricus Hervodius put his finger on their enduring value: they were literal (de verbo in verbo), faithful to the spirit of Aristotle andwithout elegance. For several of William's translations, the Greek texts have since disappeared, without him the works would be lost. William also translated mathematical treatises byHero of Alexandria andArchimedes. Especially important was his translation of theElements of Theology ofProclus (made in 1268), because theElements of Theology is one of the fundamental sources of the revivedNeo-Platonic philosophical currents of the 13th century. TheVatican collection holds William's own copy of the translation he made of the greatestHellenistic mathematician,Archimedes, with commentaries ofEutocius, which was made in 1269 at the papal court in Viterbo. William consulted two of the best Greek manuscripts of Archimedes, both of which have since disappeared.

Adelard of Bath's (fl. 1116–1142) translations into Latin includedal-Khwarizmi's astronomical and trigonometrical workAstronomical Tables and hisarithmetical workLiber Isagogarum Alchorismi, theIntroduction to Astrology ofAbu Ma'shar, as well as Euclid'sElements.^[48] Adelard associated with other scholars in Western England such asPeter Alfonsi andWalcher of Malvern who translated and developed the astronomical concepts brought from Spain.^[49]Abu Kamil'sAlgebra was also translated into Latin during this period, but the translator of the work is unknown.^[30]

Alfred of Sareshel's (c. 1200–1227) translations include the works ofNicolaus of Damascus andHunayn ibn Ishaq. Antonius Frachentius Vicentinus' translations include the works ofIbn Sina (Avicenna).Armengaud Blaise's translations include the works of Avicenna,Averroes, Hunayn ibn Ishaq, andMaimonides.Berengarius of Valentia translated the works ofAbu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis). Drogon (Azagont) translated the works ofal-Kindi. Farragut (Faradj ben Salam) translated the works of Hunayn ibn Ishaq, ibn Zezla (Byngezla),Masawaiyh (Mesue), andal-Razi (Rhazes). Andreas Alphagus Bellnensis' translations include the works of Avicenna, Averroes,Serapion, al-Qifti, and Albe'thar.^[50]

In 13th centuryMontpellier, Profatius and Bernardus Honofredi translated theKitab al-Aghdhiya byIbn Zuhr (Avenzoar) asDe regimine sanitatis; and Armengaud translated theal-Urjuza fi al-Tibb, a work combining the medical writings ofAvicenna andAverroes, asCantica cum commento.^[24]

Other texts translated during this period include a number ofalchemical works, the first of which appears to have been theLiber de compositione alchemiae ("Book on the Composition of Alchemy"), translated byRobert of Chester in 1144 and containing a dialogue between Morienus andKhālid ibn Yazīd.^[51] Also notable are translations from alchemical works attributed toJabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), such as theBook of the Seventy (Arabic:Kitāb al-Sabʿīn, translated byGerard of Cremona, before 1187, asLiber de Septuaginta),The Great Book of Mercy (Arabic:Kitāb al-Raḥma al-Kabīr, anonymously translated asLiber Misericordiae), andThe Book of the Kingship (Arabic:Kitāb al-Mulk, translated asLiber Regni).^[52] Another work translated during this period wasDe Proprietatibus Elementorum, anArabic work ongeology written by apseudo-Aristotle.^[13] A pseudo-Mesue'sDe consolatione medicanarum simplicum, Antidotarium, was also translated into Latin by an anonymous translator.^[23]

In the 12th century in southern France and Italy, many Arabic scientific texts were translated into Hebrew. France and Italy had large Jewish communities where there was little knowledge of Arabic, requiring translations to provide access to Arabic science. The translation of Arabic texts into Hebrew was used by translators, such asProfatius Judaeus, as an intermediate step between translation from Arabic into Latin. This practice was most widely used from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries.^[53]

This list is of translations after c. 1100 of works written originally in Greek.

• Hippocrates and school (5th, 4th centuries B.C.)
  • Aphorisms:Burgundio of Pisa, from Greek, 12th century
  • Various treatises:Gerard of Cremona and others, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
  • William of Moerbeke, from Greek, after 1260
• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
  • Posterior Analytics (a founding document of thelogica nova): two versions from Greek, 12th century; from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
  • Meteorologica (Book 4):Henricus Aristippus, from Greek, Sicily c. 1156
  • Physica,De Generatione et Corruptione,Parva Naturalia,Metaphysica (first 4 books),De Anima, from Greek, 12th century
  • Meteorologica (Books 1-3),Physica,De Cælo et Mundo,De Generatione et Corruptione: Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
  • De Animalibus (Historia Animalium,De Partibus Animalium,De Generatione Animalium):Michael Scot, from a9th-century Arabic translation, Spain c. 1217-20
  • Almost complete works: William of Moerbeke, new or revised translations from Greek c. 1260-71
• Euclid (c. 330-260 B.C.)
  • Elements (15 books, 13 genuine):Adelard of Bath from Arabic, c. 1126; revised byCampanus of Novara, c. 1254
  • Optica andCatoptrica: from Greek, probably Sicily
• Apollonius (3rd century B.C.)
  • Conica: perhaps Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, 12th century
• Archimedes (287-212 B.C.)
  • De Mensura Circuli: Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
  • De Iis quæ in Humido Vehuntur (On Floating Bodies): William of Moerbeke from Greek 1269
• Diocles ( 2nd century B.C.)
  • De Speculis Comburentibus (On Burning Mirrors): Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
• Hero of Alexandria (1st century B.C.?)
  • Pneumatica: from Greek, Sicily 12th century
  • Catoptrica (attributed to Ptolemy in Middle Ages): William of Moerbeke, from Greek, after 1260
• Pseudo-Aristotle
  • Mechanica: from Greek, early 13th century;Bartholomew of Messina, from Greek, Sicily c.1260
  • De Plantis orDe Vegetabilibus (now attributed toNicolaus of Damascus, 1st century B.C.):Alfred of Sareshel, from Arabic, Spain probably before 1200
• Pseudo-Euclid
  • Liber Euclidis de Ponderoso et Levi (onstatics): from Arabic, 12th century
• Galen (129-200 A.D.)
  • Various treatises: Burgundio of Pisa, from Greek, c. 1185
  • Various treatises: Gerard of Cremona and others, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
  • Various treatises: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 1277
• Ptolemy (2nd century A.D.)
  • Almagest: from Greek, Sicily c. 1160; Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 1175
  • Optica:Eugenius of Palermo, from Arabic, c. 1154
• Alexander of Aphrodisias (fl. 193 -217 A.D.)
  • Commentary on theMeteorologica: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 13th century
  • De Motu et Tempore: Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
• Proclus (412-485 A.D.)
  • Elements of Physics (De motu): from Greek, Sicily 12th century
  • Elements of Theology: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 1268
  • Three opuscules (On Providence,On Providence and Fate, andOn the Existence of Evils): William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 13th century
  • Commentary on Plato's Parmenides: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 13th century
• Simplicius (6th century A.D.)
  • Part ofCommentary on Aristotle'sDe Cælo:Robert Grosseteste, from Greek, 13th century
  • Commentary on Aristotle'sPhysica: from Greek, 13th century
  • Commentary on Aristotle's De Cælo: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 1271
  • Commentary on Aristotle's Categories: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 13th century

• Toledo School of Translators
• Renaissance of the 12th century
• Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe
• Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete
• List of translators
• Graeco-Arabic translation movement

• Burnett, Charles, ed. (1999).Adelard of Bath: Conversations with His Nephew. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Burnett, Charles (2001). "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century".Science in Context.14 (1–2):249–288.doi:10.1017/S0269889701000096.S2CID 143006568.
• Campbell, Donald (1926).Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages. London: Routledge.ISBN 0-415-23188-4.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
• D'Alverny, Marie-Thérèse (1982). "Translations and Translators". In Benson, Robert L.;Constable, Giles (eds.).Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 421–462.
• Dapsens, Marion (2016)."De la Risālat Maryānus au De Compositione alchemiae: Quelques réflexions sur la tradition d'un traité d'alchimie"(PDF).Studia graeco-arabica.6:121–140.
• Haskins, Charles Homer (1924).Studies in the History of Mediaeval Science. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.OCLC 836689268.
• Haskins, Charles Homer (1927).The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. (see especially chapter 9, "The Translators from Greek and Arabic")
• Kann, Christoph (1993). "Michael Scotus". In Bautz, Traugott (ed.).Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL). Vol. 5. Herzberg: Bautz. cols. 1459–1461.ISBN 3-88309-043-3.
• Irwin, Robert (2003).The Arabian Nights: A Companion. London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks.ISBN 1-86064-983-1.
• Jacquart, Danielle (1996). "The Influence of Arabic Medicine in the Medieval West". InRashed, Roshdi (ed.).Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. Vol. 3. London: Routledge. pp. 963–984.ISBN 0-415-12410-7.
• Joseph, George G. (2000).The Crest of the Peacock. Non-European Roots of Mathematics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.ISBN 0-691-00659-8.
• Katz, Victor J. (1998).A History of Mathematics: An Introduction. Reading: Addison Wesley.ISBN 0-321-01618-1.
• Larramendi, Miguel Hernando de; Cañada, Luis Miguel Pérez; Parrilla, Gonzalo Fernández, eds. (2000).La traducción de literatura árabe contemporánea: antes y después de Naguib Mahfuz. Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha.ISBN 84-8427-050-5.
• Laughlin, Burgess (1995).The Aristotle Adventure. A Guide to the Greek, Arabic, and Latin Scholars Who Transmitted Aristotle's Logic to the Renaissance. Flagstaff Ariz.: Albert Hale Pub.
• Lindberg, David C. (1978)."The Transmission of Greek and Arabic Learning to the West". In Lindberg, David C. (ed.).Science in the Middle Ages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 52–90.ISBN 9780226482330.
• Moureau, Sébastien (2020)."Min al-kīmiyāʾ ad alchimiam. The Transmission of Alchemy from the Arab-Muslim World to the Latin West in the Middle Ages".Micrologus.28:87–141.hdl:2078.1/211340.
• Pingree, David E. (2014). "Plato's HermeticBook of the Cow".Transactions of the American Philosophical Society.104 (3):463–475.ProQuest 1636557067
• Reynolds, L.D.; Wilson, Nigel G. (1968).Scribes and Scholars: A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature. London: Oxford University Press.OCLC 895660376.
• Sarton, George (1952).A Guide to the History of Science. Waltham: Chronica Botanica Company.ISBN 9781298825681.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
• Smith, A. Mark (2001).Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition with English Translation and Commentary of the First Three Books of Alhacen'sDe Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytam'sKitab al-Manazir. Volume One: Introduction and Latin Text. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 91, 4. Vol. 91. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. pp. i–337.doi:10.2307/3657358.ISBN 9780871699145.JSTOR 3657358.{{cite book}}:|journal= ignored (help)
• Suter, H.; Samsó, J. (1960–2007). "al-Khayyāṭ". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4264.
• Taton, René (1963).History of Science: Ancient and Medieval Science. New York: Basic Books.OCLC 797291798.
• Watt, W. Montgomery (1972).The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
• Wightman, William P. D. (1953).The Growth of Scientific Ideas. New Haven: Yale University Press.ISBN 1-135-46042-6.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)

• Robert of Ketton's Qu'ran, as edited by Bibliander (1550 revised edition)
• Norman Roth, "Jewish Collaborators in Alfonso's Scientific Work," in Robert I. Burns, ed.,Emperor of Culture: Alfonso X the Learned of Castile and His Thirteenth-Century Renaissance Culture
• Makdisi - Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West

• History of translation
• 12th-century Latin literature
• Translations into Latin

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