 Latin Church | |
|---|---|
| Ecclesia Latina | |
 Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran inRome, Italy | |
| Type | Particular church (sui iuris) |
| Classification | Christian |
| Orientation | Roman Catholic |
| Scripture | Nova Vulgata[1] |
| Theology | Catholic theology |
| Polity | Papal supremacy -Episcopal[2] |
| Governance | Holy See |
| Pope | Leo XIV |
| Full communion | Catholic Church |
| Region | Mainly inWestern Europe,Central Europe, theAmericas, thePhilippines, pockets ofAfrica,Madagascar,Oceania, with severalepiscopal conferences around the world |
| Language | Ecclesiastical Latin and native languages |
| Liturgy | Latin liturgical rites |
| Headquarters | Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran,Rome, Italy |
| Territory | Worldwide |
| Origin | 1st century Rome,Roman Empire |
| Branched from | Catholic Church |
| Separations |
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| Members | 1.3 billion (2015)[4] |
| Other names |
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| Official website | vatican.va |
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| Catholic Church |
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TheLatin Church (Latin:Ecclesia Latina) is the largest autonomous (sui iuris)particular church within theCatholic Church, whose members constitute the vast majority of the 1.3 billion Catholics. The Latin Church is one of 24sui iuris churches infull communion with thepope; the other 23 are collectively referred to as theEastern Catholic Churches, and they have approximately 18 million members combined.[5]
The Latin Church is directly headed by the pope in his role as thebishop of Rome, whosecathedra as a bishop is located in theArchbasilica of Saint John Lateran inRome, Italy. The Latin Church both developed within and strongly influencedWestern culture; as such, it is sometimes called theWestern Church (Latin:Ecclesia Occidentalis), which is reflected in one of the pope's traditional titles in some eras and contexts, thePatriarch of the West.[6] It is also known as theRoman Church (Latin:Ecclesia Romana),[7][8] theLatin Catholic Church,[9][10] and in some contexts as theRoman Catholic Church (though this name can also refer to the Catholic Church as a whole).[11][a]
The Latin Church was in full communion with what is referred to as theEastern Orthodox Church until theEast–West Schism ofRome andConstantinople in 1054. From that time, but also before it, it became common to refer to Western Christians asLatins in contrast toByzantines or Greeks.
The Latin Church employs theLatin liturgical rites, which since the mid-20th century are very often translated into thevernacular. The predominantliturgical rite is theRoman Rite, elements of which have been practiced since the fourth century.[12] There exist and have existed since ancient times additional Latin liturgical rites anduses, including the currently usedMozarabic Rite in restricted use in Spain, theAmbrosian Rite in parts of Italy, and theAnglican Use in thepersonal ordinariates.
In theearly modern period and subsequently, the Latin Church carried outevangelizing missions to theAmericas, and from thelate modern period toSub-Saharan Africa andEast Asia. TheProtestant Reformation in the 16th century resulted inProtestantism breaking away, resulting in the fragmentation ofWestern Christianity, including not only Protestant offshoots of the Latin Church, but also smaller groups of 19th-century break-awayIndependent Catholic denominations.
The historical part of the Catholic Church in the West is called the Latin Church to distinguish itself from the Eastern Catholic Churches which are also under the pope'sprimacy. In historical context, before theEast–West Schism in 1054 the Latin Church is sometimes referred to as theWestern Church. Writers belonging to various Protestant denominations sometime use the termWestern Church as an implicit claim to legitimacy.[clarification needed]
The termLatin Catholic refers to followers of theLatin liturgical rites, of which theRoman Rite is predominant. The Latin liturgical rites are contrasted with the liturgical rites of the Eastern Catholic Churches.
The 1990Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches defines the use within that code of the words "church" and "rite".[13][14] In accordance with these definitions of usage within the code that governs theEastern Catholic Churches, the Latin Church is one such group of Christian faithful united by a hierarchy and recognized by the supreme authority of theCatholic Church as asui iuris particular Church. The "Latin Rite" is the whole of the patrimony of that distinct particular church, by which it manifests its own manner of living the faith, including its own liturgy, its theology, its spiritual practices and traditions and its canon law. A Catholic, as an individual person, is necessarily a member of a particular church. A person also inherits, or "is of",[15][16][17][18][19] a particular patrimony or rite. Since the rite has liturgical, theological, spiritual and disciplinary elements, a person is also to worship, to be catechized, to pray and to be governed according to a particular rite.
Particular churches that inherit and perpetuate a particular patrimony are identified by themetonymy "church" or "rite". Accordingly, "Rite" has been defined as "a division of the Christian Church using a distinctive liturgy",[20] or simply as "a Christian Church".[21] In this sense, "Rite" and "Church" are treated as synonymous, as in the glossary prepared by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and revised in 1999, which states that each "Eastern-rite (Oriental) Church ... is considered equal to the Latin rite within the Church".[22] The Second Vatican Council likewise stated that "it is the mind of the Catholic Church that each individual Church or Rite should retain its traditions whole and entire and likewise that it should adapt its way of life to the different needs of time and place"[23] and spoke of patriarchs and of "major archbishops, who rule the whole of some individual Church or Rite".[24] It thus used the word "Rite" as "a technical designation of what may now be called a particular Church".[25] "Church or rite" is also used as a single heading in theUnited States Library of Congress classification of works.[26]
Historically, the governing entity of the Latin Church (i.e. theHoly See) has been viewed as one of the fivepatriarchates of thePentarchy ofearly Christianity, along with the patriarchates ofConstantinople,Alexandria,Antioch, andJerusalem. Due to geographic and cultural considerations, the latter patriarchates developed into churches with distinctEastern Christian traditions. This scheme, tacitly at least accepted by Rome, is constructed from the viewpoint of Greek Christianity and does not take into consideration other churches of great antiquity which developed in the East outside the frontiers of the Roman Empire. The majority of Eastern Christian Churches broke full communion with the Bishop of Rome and the Latin Church, following various theological and jurisdictional disputes in the centuries following theCouncil of Chalcedon in AD 451. These included notably theNestorian Schism (431–544) (Church of the East),Chalcedonian Schism (451) (Oriental Orthodoxy), and theEast-West Schism (1054) (Eastern Orthodoxy).[27] TheProtestant Reformation of the 16th century saw a schism which was not analogous since it was not based upon the same historical factors and involved far more profound theological dissent from the teaching of the totality of previously existing historical Christian churches. Until 2006, the pope claimed the title "patriarch of the West";Benedict XVI set aside this title. In 2024,Pope Francis reinstated patriarch of the West as one of the officialpapal titles.[28]
Following theIslamic conquests, theCrusades were launched by the West from 1095 to 1291 in order to defend Christians and their properties in theHoly Land againstpersecution. In the long term the Crusaders did not succeed in re-establishing political and military control of Palestine, which like former Christian North Africa and the rest of the Middle East remained under Islamic control. The names of many former Christian dioceses of this vast area are still used by the Catholic Church as the names ofCatholic titular sees, irrespective of the question of liturgical families.
In theHigh Middle Ages began the development ofScholasticism in the Latin Church, which saw to reconcile the rediscovery ofClassical Greek works such as those ofAristotle with Christianity. Under that came new theologians such asThomas Aquinas andAnselm of Canterbury who believed that faith and reason could exist without any contradiction.[29][30][31]
During the Age of Discovery, the Latin Church spread to the Americas and the Philippines under the colonial powers ofSpain andPortugal, whichPope Alexander VI in thepapal bullInter caetera awarded colonial rights to.[32] TheFrench colonization of the Americas beginning in the 16th century established the French Latin Church inQuebec.[33]
In the Catholic Church, in addition to the Latin Church—directly headed by the pope as Latin patriarch and notable withinWestern Christianity for itssacred tradition andseven sacraments— there are 23Eastern Catholic Churches, self-governingparticular churchessui iuris with their own hierarchies. Most of these churches trace their origins to the other four patriarchates of the ancientpentarchy, but either never historically broke full communion or returned to it with the Papacy at some time. These differ from each other inliturgical rite (ceremonies, vestments, chants, language), devotional traditions,theology,canon law, andclergy, but all maintain the same faith, and all see full communion with the pope asbishop of Rome as essential to being Catholic as well as part of theone true church as defined by theFour Marks of the Church inCatholic ecclesiology.
The approximately 18 million Eastern Catholics represent a minority of Christians in communion with the pope,[5] compared to well over 1 billion Latin Catholics. Additionally, there are roughly 250 millionEastern Orthodox and 86 millionOriental Orthodox around the world that are not in union with Rome. Unlike the Latin Church, the pope does not exercise a direct patriarchal role over the Eastern Catholic churches and their faithful, instead encouraging their internal hierarchies, which while separate from that of the Latin Church and function analogously to it, and follow the traditions shared with the corresponding Eastern Christian churches in Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy.[27]
CardinalJoseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) described theLatin liturgical rites on 24 October 1998:[34]
Several forms of the Latin rite have always existed, and were only slowly withdrawn, as a result of the coming together of the different parts of Europe. Before the Council there existed, side by side with theRoman rite, theAmbrosian rite, theMozarabic rite ofToledo, therite of Braga, theCarthusian rite, theCarmelite rite, and best known of all, theDominican rite, and perhaps still other rites of which I am not aware.
Today, the most common Latin liturgical rites are theRoman Rite—either the post-Vatican II Mass promulgated byPope Paul VI in 1969 and revised byPope John Paul II in 2002 (the"Ordinary Form"), or the 1962 form of theTridentine Mass (the "Extraordinary Form"); theAmbrosian Rite; theMozarabic Rite; and variations of the Roman Rite (such as theAnglican Use). The 23Eastern Catholic Churches employ five different families of liturgical rites. The Latin liturgical rites are used only in a singlesui iuris particular church.
Of other liturgical families, the main survivors are what is now referred to officially as theHispano-Mozarabic Rite, still in restricted use in Spain; theAmbrosian Rite, centred geographically on theArchdiocese of Milan, inItaly, and much closer in form, though not specific content, to the Roman Rite; and theCarthusian Rite, practised within thestrict Carthusian monastic Order, which also employs in general terms forms similar to the Roman Rite, but with a number of significant divergences which have adapted it to the distinctive way of life of the Carthusians.
There once existed what is referred to as the Gallican Rite, used in Gaulish or Frankish territories. This was a conglomeration of varying forms, not unlike the presentHispano-Mozarabic Rite in its general structures, but never strictly codified and which from at least the seventh century was gradually infiltrated, and then eventually for the most part replaced, by liturgical texts and forms which had their origin in the diocese of Rome. Other former "Rites" in past times practised in certain religious orders and important cities were in truth usually partial variants upon theRoman Rite and have almost entirely disappeared from current use, despite limited nostalgic efforts at revival of some of them and a certain indulgence by the Roman authorities.
Canon law for the Latin Church is codified in theCode of Canon Law, of which there have been two codifications, the first promulgated byPope Benedict XV in 1917 and the second byPope John Paul II in 1983.[35]
In the Latin Church, the norm for administration ofconfirmation is that, except when in danger of death, the person to be confirmed should "have the use of reason, be suitably instructed, properly disposed, and able to renew the baptismal promises",[36] and "the administration of the Most HolyEucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation so that they understand the mystery of Christ according to their capacity and are able to receive the body of Christ with faith and devotion."[37] In the Eastern Churches these sacraments are usually administered immediately afterbaptism, even for an infant.[38]
Celibacy, as a consequence of the duty to observe perfect continence, is obligatory forpriests in the Latin Church.[39] An exception is made for married clergy from other churches, who join the Catholic Church; they may continue as married priests.[40] In the Latin Church, a married man may not be admitted even to the diaconate unless he is legitimately destined to remain a deacon and not become a priest.[41] Marriage after ordination is not possible, and attempting it can result in canonical penalties.[42] The Eastern Catholic Churches, unlike the Latin Church, have a married clergy.
At the present time,Bishops in the Latin Church are generallyappointed by thepope after hearing the advice of the variousdicasteries of theRoman Curia, specifically theCongregation for Bishops, theCongregation for the Evangelization of Peoples (for countries in its care), theSection for Relations with States of theSecretariat of State (for appointments that require the consent or prior notification of civil governments), and theCongregation for the Oriental Churches (in the areas in its charge, even for the appointment of Latin bishops). The Congregations generally work from a "terna" or list of three names advanced to them by the local church, most often through the Apostolic Nuncio or the Cathedral Chapter in those places where the Chapter retains the right to nominate bishops.[citation needed]
Augustine of Hippo was aRoman African,philosopher andbishop in the Catholic Church. He helped shapeLatin Christianity, and is viewed as one of the most importantChurch Fathers in the Latin Church for his writings in thePatristic Period. Among his works areThe City of God,De doctrina Christiana, andConfessions.
In his youth he was drawn toManichaeism and later toneoplatonism. After his baptism and conversion in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives.[43] Believing that thegrace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine oforiginal sin and made seminal contributions to the development ofjust war theory. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. The segment of the church that adhered to the concept of theTrinity as defined by theCouncil of Nicaea and theCouncil of Constantinople[44] closely identified with Augustine'sOn the Trinity
When theWestern Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine imagined the church as a spiritualCity of God, distinct from the material Earthly City.[45] in his bookOn the city of God against the pagans, often calledThe City of God, Augustine declared its message to be spiritual rather than political. Christianity, he argued, should be concerned with the mystical, heavenly city, theNew Jerusalem, rather than with earthly politics.
The City of God presents humanhistory as a conflict between what Augustine calls the Earthly City (often colloquially referred to as the City of Man, but never by Augustine) and the City of God, a conflict that is destined to end in victory for the latter. The City of God is marked by people who forego earthly pleasure to dedicate themselves to the eternal truths of God, now revealed fully in the Christian faith. The Earthly City, on the other hand, consists of people who have immersed themselves in the cares and pleasures of the present, passing world.
For Augustine, theLogos "took on flesh" in Christ, in whom the logos was present as in no other man.[46][47][48] He strongly influencedEarly Medieval Christian Philosophy.[49]
Like other Church Fathers such asAthenagoras,[50]Tertullian,[51]Clement of Alexandria andBasil of Caesarea,[52] Augustine "vigorously condemned the practice of inducedabortion", and although he disapproved of an abortion during any stage of pregnancy, he made a distinction between early abortions and later ones.[53] He acknowledged the distinction between "formed" and "unformed" fetuses mentioned in theSeptuagint translation ofExodus 21:22–23, which is considered as wrong translation of the word "harm" from the original Hebrew text as "form" in the Greek Septuagint and based in Aristotelian distinction "between the fetus before and after its supposed 'vivification'", and did not classify as murder the abortion of an "unformed" fetus since he thought that it could not be said with certainty that the fetus had already received a soul.[53][54]
Augustine also used the term "Catholic" to distinguish the "true" church from heretical groups:
In the Catholic Church, there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of theApostle Peter, to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15–19), down to the presentepiscopate.
And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house.
Such then in number and importance are the precious ties belonging to the Christian name which keep a believer in the Catholic Church, as it is right they should. ...With you, there is none of these things to attract or keep me. ...No one shall move me from the faith which binds my mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion. ...For my part, I should not believe the gospel except as moved by the authority of the Catholic Church.
- — St. Augustine (354–430):Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith.[55]
_-_The_Four_Doctors_of_the_Western_Church%2c_Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo_(354%25E2%2580%2593430).jpg)
In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, Augustine was greatly influenced byStoicism,Platonism andNeoplatonism, particularly by the work ofPlotinus, author of theEnneads, probably through the mediation ofPorphyry andVictorinus (asPierre Hadot has argued). Although he later abandoned Neoplatonism, some ideas are still visible in his early writings.[56] His early and influential writing on thehuman will, a central topic inethics, would become a focus for later philosophers such asSchopenhauer,Kierkegaard, andNietzsche. He was also influenced by the works ofVirgil (known for his teaching on language), andCicero (known for his teaching on argument).[57]
In the East, his teachings are more disputed, and were notably attacked byJohn Romanides.[58] But other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant approbation of his writings, chieflyGeorges Florovsky.[59] The most controversial doctrine associated with him, the filioque,[60] was rejected by the Orthodox Church[61] as heretical.[citation needed] Other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, andpredestination.[60] Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is still considered a saint, and has even had influence on some Eastern Church Fathers, most notably the Greek theologian Gregory Palamas.[62] In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 15 June.[60][63] HistorianDiarmaid MacCulloch has written: "[Augustine's] impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved examplePaul of Tarsus has been more influential, and Westerners have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes."[64]
In his autobiographical bookMilestones,Pope Benedict XVI claims Augustine as one of the deepest influences in his thought.
Scholasticism is a method of criticalthought which dominated teaching by theacademics ("scholastics", or "schoolmen") ofmedieval universities in Europe from about 1100 to 1700, The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally seen as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of therecovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.[65]William of Moerbeke's translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century helped form a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, particularly of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions on which they had previously relied.Edward Grant writes: "Not only was the structure of the Arabic language radically different from that of Latin, but some Arabic versions had been derived from earlier Syriac translations and were thus twice removed from the original Greek text. Word-for-word translations of such Arabic texts could produce tortured readings. By contrast, the structural closeness of Latin to Greek permitted literal, but intelligible, word-for-word translations."[66]
Universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. The two main orders founded in this period were theFranciscans and theDominicans. The Franciscans were founded byFrancis of Assisi in 1209. Their leader in the middle of the century wasBonaventure, a traditionalist who defended the theology ofAugustine and the philosophy ofPlato, incorporating only a little ofAristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements. Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can only discover truth when philosophy is illuminated by religious faith.[67] Other important Franciscan scholastics wereDuns Scotus,Peter Auriol andWilliam of Ockham.[68][69]
SaintThomas Aquinas,[70][71] anItalianDominicanfriar,philosopher andpriest, was immensely influential in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as theDoctor Angelicus and theDoctor Communis.[72]
Aquinas emphasized that "Synderesis is said to be the law of our mind, because it is a habit containing the precepts of the natural law, which are the first principles of human actions."[73][74]
According to Aquinas "…all acts of virtue are prescribed by the natural law, since each one's reason naturally dictates to him to act virtuously. But if we speak of virtuous acts, considered in themselves, i.e., in their proper species, not all virtuous acts are prescribed by the natural law for many things are done virtuously to which nature does not incline at first; but that, through the inquiry of reason, have been found by men to be conducive to well living." Therefore, we must determine if we are speaking of virtuous acts as under the aspect of virtuous or as an act in its species.[75]
Thomas defined the fourcardinal virtues asprudence,temperance,justice, andfortitude. The cardinal virtues are natural and revealed in nature, and they are binding on everyone. There are, however, threetheological virtues:faith,hope, andcharity. Thomas also describes the virtues as imperfect (incomplete) and perfect (complete) virtues. A perfect virtue is any virtue with charity, which completes a cardinal virtue. A non-Christian can display courage, but it would be courage with temperance. A Christian would display courage with charity. These are somewhat supernatural and are distinct from other virtues in their object, namely, God:
Now the object of the theological virtues is God Himself, Who is the last end of all, as surpassing the knowledge of our reason. On the other hand, the object of the intellectual and moral virtues is something comprehensible to human reason. Wherefore the theological virtues are specifically distinct from the moral and intellectual virtues.[76]
Thomas Aquinas wrote: "[Greed] is a sin against God, just as all mortal sins, in as much as man condemns things eternal for the sake of temporal things."[77]
Aquinas also contributed toeconomic thought as an aspect of ethics and justice. He dealt with the concept of ajust price, normally its market price or a regulated price sufficient to cover sellercosts of production. He argued it was immoral for sellers to raise their prices simply because buyers were in pressing need for a product.[78][79]
Aquinas later expanded his argument to oppose any unfair earnings made in trade, basing the argument on theGolden Rule. The Christian should "do unto others as you would have them do unto you", meaning he should trade value for value. Aquinas believed that it was specifically immoral to raise prices because a particular buyer had an urgent need for what was being sold and could be persuaded to pay a higher price because of local conditions:
Aquinas would therefore condemn practices such as raising the price of building supplies in the wake of anatural disaster. Increased demand caused by the destruction of existing buildings does not add to a seller's costs, so to take advantage of buyers' increased willingness to pay constituted a species offraud in Aquinas's view.[81]
In hisSumma Theologica andSumma contra Gentiles, Aquinas laid out five arguments for theexistence of God, known as thequinque viae ("five ways").[82][83] He also enumerated five divine qualities, allframed as negatives.[84]
Aquinas shifted Scholasticism away fromneoplatonism and towardsAristotle. The ensuing school of thought, through its influence on Latin Christianity and the ethics of the Catholic school, is one of the most influential philosophies of all time, also significant due to the number of people living by its teachings.
In theology, hisSumma Theologica is one of the most influential documents inmedieval theology and continued into the 20th century to be the central point of reference for the philosophy and theology of Latin Christianity. In the 1914 encyclicalDoctoris Angelici,[85]Pope Pius X cautioned that the teachings of the Catholic Church cannot be understood without the basic philosophical underpinnings of Aquinas' major theses:
The capital theses in the philosophy of St. Thomas are not to be placed in the category of opinions capable of being debated one way or another, but are to be considered as the foundations upon which the whole science of natural and divine things is based; if such principles are once removed or in any way impaired, it must necessarily follow that students of the sacred sciences will ultimately fail to perceive so much as the meaning of the words in which the dogmas of divine revelation are proposed by the magistracy of the Church.[86]
TheSecond Vatican Council described Aquinas' system as the "Perennial Philosophy".[87]
Actus purus is the absolute perfection ofGod. According to Scholasticism, created beings havepotentiality—that is not actuality, imperfections as well as perfection. Only God is simultaneously all that He can be, infinitely real and infinitely perfect: 'I am who I am' (Exodus3:14). His attributes or His operations are really identical with Hisessence, and His essence necessitates Hisexistence.
Later, the Eastern Orthodox ascetic and archbishop of Thessaloniki, (Saint)Gregory Palamas argued in defense ofhesychast spirituality, theuncreated character of the light of the Transfiguration, and thedistinction between God's essence and energies. His teaching unfolded over the course of three major controversies, (1) with the Italo-GreekBarlaam between 1336 and 1341, (2) with the monkGregory Akindynos between 1341 and 1347, and (3) with the philosopherGregoras, from 1348 to 1355. His theological contributions are sometimes referred to asPalamism, and his followers as Palamites.
Historically Latin Christianity has tended to reject Palamism, especially the essence-energies distinction, some times characterizing it as a heretical introduction of an unacceptable division in the Trinity and suggestive ofpolytheism.[88][89] Further, the associated practice ofhesychasm used to achievetheosis was characterized as "magic".[90][91] More recently, some Roman Catholic thinkers have taken a positive view of Palamas's teachings, including the essence-energies distinction, arguing that it does not represent an insurmountable theological division between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy,[92] and his feast day as a saint is celebrated by someByzantineCatholic churches in communion with Rome.[93][94]
The rejection of Palamism by the West and by those in the East who favoured union with the West (the "Latinophrones"), actually contributed to its acceptance in the East, according to Martin Jugie, who adds: "Very soon Latinism and Antipalamism, in the minds of many, would come to be seen as one and the same thing".[95]
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Filioque is a Latin term added to the originalNicene Creed, and which has been the subject of great controversy between Eastern and Western Christianity. It is not in the original text of the Creed, attributed to theFirst Council of Constantinople (381), thesecond ecumenical council, which says that theHoly Spirit proceeds "from theFather", without additions of any kind, such as "and the Son" or "alone".[96]
The phraseFilioque first appears as an anti-Arian[97][98] interpolation in the Creed at theThird Council of Toledo (589), at whichVisigothic Spain renouncedArianism, accepting Catholic Christianity. The addition was confirmed by subsequent local councils in Toledo and soon spread throughout the West, not only in Spain but also in the kingdom of the Franks, who had adopted the Catholic faith in 496,[99] and in England, where theCouncil of Hatfield imposed it in 680 as a response toMonothelitism.[100] However, it was not adopted in Rome.
In the late 6th century, some Latin churches added the words "and from the Son" (Filioque) to the description of the procession of the Holy Spirit, in what many Eastern Orthodox Christians have at a later stage argued is a violation of Canon VII of theCouncil of Ephesus, since the words were not included in the text by either theFirst Council of Nicaea or that of Constantinople.[101] This was incorporated into the liturgical practice of Rome in 1014,[102] but was rejected by Eastern Christianity.
Whether that termFilioque is included, as well as how it is translated and understood, can have important implications for how one understands the doctrine of theTrinity, which is central to the majority of Christian churches. For some, the term implies a serious underestimation ofGod the Father's role in the Trinity; for others, denial of what it expresses implies a serious underestimation of the role ofGod the Son in the Trinity.
TheFilioque phrase has been included in the Creed throughout all the Latin liturgical rites except whereGreek is used in the liturgy,[103][104] although it was never adopted by Eastern Catholic Churches.[105]
Another doctrine of Latin Christianity ispurgatory, about which Latin Christianity holds that "all who die in God's grace and friendship but still imperfectly purified" undergo the process of purification which the Catholic Church calls purgatory, "so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy ofheaven". It has formulated this doctrine by reference to biblical verses that speak of purifying fire (1 Corinthians 3:15 and1 Peter 1:7) and to the mention by Jesus of forgiveness in the age to come (Matthew 12:32). It bases its teaching also on the practice of praying for the dead in use within the church ever since the church began and which is mentioned even earlier in2 Macc 12:46.[106][107]
The idea of purgatory has roots that date back into antiquity. A sort of proto-purgatory called the "celestialHades" appears in the writings of Plato and Heraclides Ponticus and in many other pagan writers. This concept is distinguished from the Hades of the underworld described in the works of Homer and Hesiod. In contrast, the celestial Hades was understood as an intermediary place where souls spent an undetermined time after death before either moving on to a higher level of existence or being reincarnated back on earth. Its exact location varied from author to author. Heraclides of Pontus thought it was in the Milky Way; the Academicians, theStoics, Cicero,Virgil,Plutarch, theHermetical writings situated it between the Moon and the Earth or around the Moon; while Numenius and the Latin Neoplatonists thought it was located between the sphere of the fixed stars and the Earth.[108]
Perhaps under the influence of Hellenistic thought, the intermediate state entered Jewish religious thought in the last centuries before Christ. In Maccabees, we find the practice of prayer for the dead with a view to their after life purification,[109]a practice accepted by some Christians. The same practice appears in other traditions, such as the medieval ChineseBuddhist practice of making offerings on behalf of the dead, who are said to suffer numerous trials.[110] Among other reasons, Western Catholic teaching of purgatory is based on the pre-Christian (Judaic) practice ofprayers for the dead.[111]
Specific examples of belief in a purification after death and of the communion of the living with the dead through prayer are found in many of theChurch Fathers.[112]Irenaeus (c. 130–202) mentioned an abode where the souls of the dead remained until the universal judgment, a process that has been described as one which "contains the concept of ... purgatory".[113] BothClement of Alexandria (c. 150–215) and his pupilOrigen of Alexandria (c. 185–254) developed a view of purification after death;[114] this view drew upon the notion that fire is a divine instrument from theOld Testament, and understood this in the context ofNew Testament teachings such asbaptism by fire, from the Gospels, and a purificatory trial after death, fromSt. Paul.[115] Origen, in arguing againstsoul sleep, stated that the souls of the elect immediately entered paradise unless not yet purified, in which case they passed into a state of punishment, a penal fire, which is to be conceived as a place of purification.[116] For both Clement and Origen, the fire was neither a material thing nor a metaphor, but a "spiritual fire".[117] The early Latin authorTertullian (c. 160–225) also articulated a view of purification after death.[118] In Tertullian's understanding of the afterlife, the souls ofmartyrs entered directly into eternal blessedness,[119] whereas the rest entered a generic realm of the dead. There the wicked suffered a foretaste of their eternal punishments,[119] whilst the good experienced various stages and places of bliss wherein "the idea of a kind of purgatory … is quite plainly found," an idea that is representative of a view widely dispersed in antiquity.[120] Later examples, wherein further elaborations are articulated, includeSt. Cyprian (d. 258),[121]St. John Chrysostom (c. 347–407),[122] andSt. Augustine (354–430),[123] among others.
Pope Gregory the Great'sDialogues, written in the late 6th century, evidence a development in the understanding of the afterlife distinctive of the direction that LatinChristendom would take:
As for certain lesser faults, we must believe that, before the Final Judgment, there is a purifying fire. He who is truth says that whoever utters blasphemy against the Holy Spirit will be pardoned neither in this age nor in theage to come. From this sentence we understand that certain offenses can be forgiven in this age, but certain others in the age to come.[124]
Some Catholic saints and theologians have had sometimes conflicting ideas about purgatory beyond those adopted by the Catholic Church, reflecting or contributing to the popular image, which includes the notions of purification by actual fire, in a determined place and for a precise length of time.Paul J. Griffiths notes: "Recent Catholic thought on purgatory typically preserves the essentials of the basic doctrine while also offering second-hand speculative interpretations of these elements."[125] ThusJoseph Ratzinger wrote: "Purgatory is not, asTertullian thought, some kind of supra-worldly concentration camp where man is forced to undergo punishment in a more or less arbitrary fashion. Rather it is the inwardly necessary process of transformation in which a person becomes capable of Christ, capable of God, and thus capable of unity with the whole communion of saints."[126]
InTheological Studies, John E. Thiel argued that "purgatory virtually disappeared from Catholic belief and practice since Vatican II" because it has been based on "a competitive spirituality, gravitating around the religious vocation of ascetics from the late Middle Ages". "The birth of purgatory negotiated the eschatological anxiety of the laity. [...] In a manner similar to the ascetic's lifelong lengthening of the temporal field of competition with the martyr, belief in purgatory lengthened the layperson's temporal field of competition with the ascetic."[127]
The speculations and popular imaginings that, especially in late medieval times, were common in the Western or Latin Church have not necessarily found acceptance in theEastern Catholic Churches, of which there are 23 infull communion with the pope. Some have explicitly rejected the notions of punishment by fire in a particular place that are prominent in the popular picture of purgatory. The representatives of theEastern Orthodox Church at theCouncil of Florence argued against these notions, while declaring that they do hold that there is a cleansing after death of the souls of the saved and that these are assisted by the prayers of the living: "If souls depart from this life in faith and charity but marked with some defilements, whether unrepented minor ones or major ones repented of but without having yet borne the fruits of repentance, we believe that within reason they are purified of those faults, but not by some purifying fire and particular punishments in some place."[128] The definition of purgatory adopted by that council excluded the two notions with which the Orthodox disagreed and mentioned only the two points that, they said, were part of their faith also. Accordingly, the agreement, known as theUnion of Brest, that formalized the admission of theUkrainian Greek Catholic Church into the fullcommunion of the Roman Catholic Church stated: "We shall not debate about purgatory, but we entrust ourselves to the teaching of the Holy Church".[129]
In the medieval Western tradition,Mary of Bethany the sister ofLazarus was identified asMary Magdalene perhaps in large part because of ahomily given by Pope Gregory the Great in which he taught about several women in theNew Testament as though they were the same person. This led to a conflation of Mary of Bethany with Mary Magdalene as well as with another woman (besides Mary of Bethany who anointed Jesus), the woman caught in adultery. Eastern Christianity never adopted this identification. In his article in the 1910Catholic Encyclopedia,Hugh Pope stated, "TheGreek Fathers, as a whole, distinguish the three persons: the 'sinner' ofLuke 7:36–50; the sister of Martha and Lazarus,Luke 10:38–42 andJohn 11; and Mary Magdalen.[130]
French scholar Victor Saxer dates the identification of Mary Magdalene as a prostitute, and as Mary of Bethany, to a sermon by Pope Gregory the Great on September 21, AD 591, where he seemed to combine the actions of three women mentioned in the New Testament and also identified an unnamed woman as Mary Magdalene. In another sermon, Gregory specifically identified Mary Magdalene as the sister of Martha mentioned in Luke 10.[131] But according to a view expressed more recently by theologian Jane Schaberg, Gregory only put the final touch to a legend that already existed before him.[132]
Latin Christianity's identification of Mary Magdalene and Mary of Bethany was reflected in the arrangement of theGeneral Roman Calendar until this was altered in 1969,[133] reflecting the fact that by then the common interpretation in the Catholic Church was that Mary of Bethany, Mary Magdalene and the sinful woman who anointed the feet of Jesus were three distinct women.[134]
TheCatechism of the Catholic Church says:
By his sinAdam, as the first man, lost the original holiness and justice he had received from God, not only for himself but for all humans.
Adam andEve transmitted to their descendants human nature wounded by their own first sin and hence deprived of original holiness and justice; this deprivation is called "original sin".
As a result of original sin, human nature is weakened in its powers, subject to ignorance, suffering and the domination of death, and inclined to sin (this inclination is called "concupiscence").[135]
The concept of original sin was first alluded to in the 2nd century by StIrenaeus,Bishop of Lyon in his controversy with certaindualistGnostics.[136] Other church fathers such asAugustine also shaped and developed the doctrine,[137][138] seeing it as based on the New Testament teaching ofPaul the Apostle (Romans5:12–21 and1 Corinthians15:21–22) and theOld Testament verse ofPsalm51:5.[139][140][141][142][143]Tertullian,Cyprian,Ambrose andAmbrosiaster considered that humanity shares in Adam's sin, transmitted by human generation.Augustine's formulation of original sin after AD 412 was popular amongProtestant reformers, such asMartin Luther andJohn Calvin, who equated original sin withconcupiscence (or "hurtful desire"), affirming that it persisted even afterbaptism and completely destroyed freedom to do good. Before 412, Augustine said that free will was weakened but not destroyed by original sin.[138] But after 412 this changed to a loss of free will except to sin.[144] Modern Calvinism holds the laterAugustinian soteriology view. TheJansenist movement, which the Catholic Church declared to be heretical, also maintained that original sin destroyedfreedom of will.[145] Instead the Western Catholic Church declares: "Baptism, by imparting the life ofChrist's grace, erases original sin and turns a man back towards God, but the consequences for nature, weakened and inclined to evil, persist in man and summon him to spiritual battle."[146] "Weakened and diminished by Adam's fall, free will is yet not destroyed in the race."[147]
St. Anselm says: "The sin of Adam was one thing but the sin of children at their birth is quite another, the former was the cause, the latter is the effect."[148] In a child, original sin is distinct from the fault of Adam, it is one of its effects. The effects of Adam's sin according to the Catholic Encyclopedia are:
Eastern Catholics and Eastern Christianity, in general, do not have the same theology ofthe Fall and original sin as Latin Catholics.[150] But since Vatican II there has been development in Catholic thinking. Some warn against taking Genesis 3 too literally. They take into account that "God had the church in mind before the foundation of the world" (as in Ephesians 1:4).[151] as also in 2 Timothy 1:9: ". . . his own purpose and grace, which was given us in Christ Jesusbefore the world began."[152] AndPope Benedict XVI in his bookIn the Beginning ... referred to the term "original sin" as "misleading and unprecise".[153] Benedict does not require a literal interpretation of Genesis, or of the origin or evil, but writes: "How was this possible, how did it happen? This remains obscure. ...Evil remains mysterious. It has been presented in great images, as does chapter 3 of Genesis, with the vision of two trees, of the serpent, of sinful man."[154][155]
TheImmaculate Conception is theconception of theBlessedVirgin Mary free from original sin by virtue of the merits of her sonJesus. Although the belief has been widely held sinceLate Antiquity, the doctrine wasdogmatically defined in the Catholic Church only in 1854 whenPope Pius IX declared itex cathedra, i.e., using papal infallibility, in hispapal bullIneffabilis Deus.[156]
It is admitted that the doctrine as defined by Pius IX was not explicitly noted before the 12th century. It is also agreed that "no direct or categorical and stringent proof of the dogma can be brought forward fromScripture".[157] But it is claimed that the doctrine is implicitly contained in the teaching of the Fathers. Their expressions on the subject of the sinlessness of Mary are, it is pointed out, so ample and so absolute that they must be taken to include original sin as well as actual. Thus in the first five centuries, such epithets as "in every respect holy", "in all things unstained", "super-innocent", and "singularly holy" are applied to her; she is compared to Eve before the fall, as ancestress of a redeemed people; she is "the earth before it was accursed". The well-known words of St.Augustine (d. 430) may be cited: "As regards the mother of God," he says, "I will not allow any question whatever of sin." It is true that he is here speaking directly of actual or personal sin. But his argument is that all men are sinners; that they are so through original depravity; that this original depravity may be overcome by the grace of God, and he adds that he does not know but that Mary may have had sufficient grace to overcome sin "of every sort" (omni ex parte).[158]
Bernard of Clairvaux in the 12th century raised the question of the Immaculate Conception. A feast of the Conception of the Blessed Virgin had already begun to be celebrated in some churches of the West. St Bernard blames the canons of the metropolitan church ofLyon for instituting such a festival without the permission of the Holy See. In doing so, he takes occasion to repudiate altogether the view that the conception of Mary was sinless, calling it a "novelty". Some doubt, however, whether he was using the term "conception" in the same sense in which it is used in the definition ofPope Pius IX. Bernard would seem to have been speaking of conception in the active sense of the mother's cooperation, for in his argument he says: "How can there be absence of sin where there is concupiscence (libido)?" and stronger expressions follow, which could be interpreted to indicate that he was speaking of the mother and not of the child. Yet, Bernard also decries those who support the feast for trying to "add to the glories of Mary", which proves he was indeed talking about Mary.[158]
The theological underpinnings of Immaculate Conception had been the subject of debate during theMiddle Ages with opposition provided by figures such as SaintThomas Aquinas, a Dominican. However, supportive arguments by FranciscansWilliam of Ware andPelbartus Ladislaus of Temesvár,[159] and general belief among Catholics, made the doctrine more acceptable so that theCouncil of Basel supported it in the 15th century, but theCouncil of Trent sidestepped the question.Pope Sixtus IV, a Franciscan, had tried to pacify the situation by forbidding either side to criticize the other, and placed the feast of the Immaculate Conception on theRoman Calendar in 1477, butPope Pius V, a Dominican, changed it to the feast of the Conception of Mary.Clement XI made the feast universal in 1708, but still did not call it the feast of the Immaculate Conception.[160] Popular and theological support for the concept continued to grow and by the 18th century it was widely depicted in art.[161][162][163][164]
TheBlessedJohn Duns Scotus (d. 1308), aFriar Minor like Saint Bonaventure, argued, that from a rational point of view it was certainly as little derogatory to the merits of Christ to assert that Mary was by him preserved from all taint of sin, as to say that she first contracted it and then was delivered.[158] Proposing a solution to the theological problem of reconciling the doctrine with that of universal redemption in Christ, he argued that Mary's immaculate conception did not remove her from redemption by Christ; rather it was the result of a more perfect redemption granted her because of her special role in salvation history.[165]
The arguments of Scotus, combined with a better acquaintance with the language of the early Fathers, gradually prevailed in the schools of the Western Church. In 1387 the university of Paris strongly condemned the opposite view.[158]
Scotus's arguments remained controversial, however, particularly among the Dominicans, who were willing enough to celebrate Mary'ssanctificatio (being made free from sin) but, following the Dominican Thomas Aquinas' arguments, continued to insist that her sanctification could not have occurred until after her conception.[157]
Scotus pointed out that Mary's Immaculate Conception enhances Jesus' redemptive work.[166]
Scotus's argument appears inPope Pius IX's 1854 declaration of thedogma of the Immaculate Conception, "at the first moment of Her conception, Mary was preserved free from the stain of original sin, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ."[167] Scotus's position was hailed as "a correct expression of the faith of the Apostles."[167]
The complete defined dogma of the Immaculate Conception states:
We declare, pronounce, and define that the doctrine which holds that the most Blessed Virgin Mary, in the first instance of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege granted by Almighty God, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the human race, was preserved free from all stain of original sin, is a doctrine revealed by God and therefore to be believed firmly and constantly by all the faithful.[168]Declaramus, pronuntiamus et definimus doctrinam, quae tenet, beatissimam Virginem Mariam in primo instanti suae Conceptionis fuisse singulari omnipotentis Dei gratia et privilegio, intuitu meritorum Christi lesu Salvatoris humani generis, ab omni originalis culpae labe praeservatam immunem, esse a Deo revelatam, atque idcirco ab omnibus fidelibus firmiter constanterque credendam. Quapropter si qui secus ac a Nobis.
Pope Pius IX explicitly affirmed that Mary was redeemed in a manner more sublime. He stated that Mary, rather than being cleansed after sin, was completely prevented from contracting original sin in view of the foreseen merits of Jesus Christ, the Savior of the human race. InLuke 1:47, Mary proclaims: "My spirit has rejoiced in God my Saviour." This is referred to as Mary's pre-redemption by Christ. Since theSecond Council of Orange againstsemi-pelagianism, the Catholic Church has taught that even had man never sinned in theGarden of Eden and was sinless, he would still require God's grace to remain sinless.[169][170]
The definition concerns original sin only, and it makes no declaration about the church's belief that the Blessed Virgin was sinless in the sense of freedom from actual or personal sin.[158] The doctrine teaches that from her conception Mary, being always free from original sin, received thesanctifying grace that would normally come with baptism after birth.
Eastern Catholics and Eastern Christianity, in general, believe that Mary wassinless but they do not have the same theology ofthe Fall and original sin as Latin Catholics.[150]
TheAssumption of Mary into Heaven (often shortened tothe Assumption) is thebodily taking up of theVirgin Mary intoHeaven at the end of her earthly life.
On 1 November 1950, in the Apostolic ConstitutionMunificentissimus Deus, PopePius XII declared the Assumption of Mary as a dogma:
By the authority of our Lord Jesus Christ, of the Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and by our own authority, we pronounce, declare, and define it to be a divinely revealed dogma: that the Immaculate Mother of God, the ever Virgin Mary, having completed the course of her earthly life, was assumed body and soul into heavenly glory.[171]
In Pius XII's dogmatic statement, the phrase "having completed the course of her earthly life", leaves open the question of whether the Virgin Mary died before her assumption or not. Mary's assumption is said to have been a divine gift to her as the "Mother of God". Ludwig Ott's view is that, as Mary completed her life as a shining example to the human race, the perspective of the gift of assumption is offered to the whole human race.[172]
Ludwig Ott writes in his bookFundamentals of Catholic Dogma that "the fact of her death is almost generally accepted by the Fathers and Theologians, and is expressly affirmed in the Liturgy of the Church", to which he adds a number of helpful citations. He concludes: "for Mary, death, in consequence of her freedom fromoriginal sin and from personal sin, was not a consequence of punishment of sin. However, it seems fitting that Mary's body, which was by nature mortal, should be, in conformity with that of herDivine Son, subject to the general law of death".[173]
The point of her bodily death has not been infallibly defined by any pope. Many Catholics believe that she did not die at all, but was assumed directly into Heaven. The dogmatic definition within the Apostolic ConstitutionMunificentissimus Deus which, according to Roman Catholic dogma, infallibly proclaims the doctrine of the Assumption leaves open the question of whether, in connection with her departure, Mary underwent bodily death. It does not dogmatically define the point one way or the other, as shown by the words "having completed the course of her earthly life".[174]
Before the dogmatic definition inDeiparae Virginis Mariae Pope Pius XII sought the opinion of Catholic Bishops. A large number of them pointed to theBook of Genesis (3:15) as scriptural support for the dogma.[175] InMunificentissimus Deus (item 39) Pius XII referred to the "struggle against the infernal foe" as in Genesis 3:15 and to "complete victory over the sin and death" as in theLetters of Paul as a scriptural basis for the dogmatic definition, Mary being assumed to heaven as in1 Corinthians 15:54: "then shall come to pass the saying that is written, Death is swallowed up in victory".[175][176]
The Western Feast of the Assumption is celebrated on 15 August, and the Eastern Orthodox andGreek Catholics celebrate theDormition of the Mother of God (or Dormition of theTheotokos, the falling asleep of the Mother of God) on the same date, preceded by a 14-dayfast period. Eastern Christians believe that Mary died a natural death, that her soul was received by Christ upon death, and that her body was resurrected on the third day after her death and that she was taken up into heaven bodily in anticipation of the generalresurrection. Her tomb was found empty on the third day.
Orthodox tradition is clear and unwavering in regard to the central point [of the Dormition]: the Holy Virgin underwent, as did her Son, a physical death, but her body—like His—was afterwards raised from the dead and she was taken up into heaven, in her body as well as in her soul. She has passed beyond death and judgement, and lives wholly in the Age to Come. The Resurrection of the Body ... has in her case been anticipated and is already an accomplished fact. That does not mean, however, that she is dissociated from the rest of humanity and placed in a wholly different category: for we all hope to share one day in that same glory of the Resurrection of the Body which she enjoys even now.[177]
Many Catholics also believe that Mary first died before being assumed, but they believe that she was miraculously resurrected before being assumed. Others believe she was assumed bodily into Heaven without first dying.[178][179] Either understanding may be legitimately held by Catholics, withEastern Catholics observing the Feast as the Dormition.
Many theologians note by way of comparison that in the Catholic Church, the Assumption is dogmatically defined, while in the Eastern Orthodox tradition, the Dormition is less dogmatically than liturgically and mystically defined. Such differences spring from a larger pattern in the two traditions, wherein Catholic teachings are often dogmatically and authoritatively defined—in part because of the more centralized structure of the Catholic Church—while in Eastern Orthodoxy, many doctrines are less authoritative.[180]
_British_Museum.jpg)
Ancient of Days is aname for God that appears in theBook of Daniel.
In an early Venetian schoolCoronation of the Virgin byGiovanni d'Alemagna andAntonio Vivarini, (c. 1443), God the Father is shown in the representation consistently used by other artists later, namely as a patriarch, with benign, yet powerful countenance and with long white hair and a beard, a depiction largely derived from, and justified by, the description of theAncient of Days in theOld Testament, the nearest approach to a physical description of God in the Old Testament:[181]
... the Ancient of Days did sit, whose garment was white as snow, and the hair of his head like the pure wool: his throne was like the fiery flame, and his wheels as burning fire. (Daniel 7:9)
St Thomas Aquinas recalls that some bring forward the objection that the Ancient of Days matches the person of the Father, without necessarily agreeing with this statement himself.[182]
By the twelfth century depictions of a figure of God the Father, essentially based on theAncient of Days in theBook of Daniel, had started to appear in French manuscripts and in stained glass church windows in England. In the 14th century the illustratedNaples Bible had a depiction of God the Father in theBurning bush. By the 15th century, theRohan Book of Hours included depictions of God the Father in human form oranthropomorphic imagery, and by the time of theRenaissance artistic representations of God the Father were freely used in the Western Church.[183]
Artistic depictions of God the Father were uncontroversial in Catholic art thereafter, but less common depictions of theTrinity were condemned. In 1745Pope Benedict XIV explicitly supported theThrone of Mercy depiction, referring to the "Ancient of Days", but in 1786 it was still necessary forPope Pius VI to issue apapal bull condemning the decision of an Italian church council to remove all images of the Trinity from churches.[184]
The depiction remains rare and often controversial in Eastern Orthodox art. In Eastern Orthodox Church hymns andicons, the Ancient of Days is most properly identified withGod the Son or Jesus, and not with God the Father. Most of the eastern church fathers who comment on the passage in Daniel (7:9–10, 13–14) interpreted the elderly figure as a prophetic revelation of the son before his physical incarnation.[185] As such, Eastern Christian art will sometimes portray Jesus Christ as an old man, the Ancient of Days, to show symbolically that he existed from all eternity, and sometimes as a young man, or wise baby, to portray him as he was incarnate. Thisiconography emerged in the 6th century, mostly in the Eastern Empire with elderly images, although usually not properly or specifically identified as "the Ancient of Days".[186] The first images of the Ancient of Days, so named with an inscription, were developed by iconographers in different manuscripts, the earliest of which are dated to the 11th century. The images in these manuscripts included the inscription "Jesus Christ, Ancient of Days," confirming that this was a way to identify Christ as pre-eternal with the God the Father.[187] Indeed, later, it was declared by theRussian Orthodox Church at theGreat Synod of Moscow in 1667 that the Ancient of Days was the Son and not the Father.[188]
From the 1990s, the issue ofsexual abuse of minors by Western Catholic clergy and other church members has become the subject of civil litigation, criminal prosecution, media coverage and public debate incountries around the world. The Western Catholic Church has been criticised for its handling of abuse complaints when it became known that some bishops had shielded accused priests, transferring them to other pastoral assignments where some continued to commit sexual offences.
In response to the scandal, formal procedures have been established to help prevent abuse, encourage the reporting of any abuse that occurs, and to handle such reports promptly, although groups representing victims have disputed their effectiveness.[189] In 2014, Pope Francis instituted thePontifical Commission for the Protection of Minors for the safeguarding of minors from abuse.[190]
The standard Bible of the Roman Catholic Church until 1979 was the Clementine Vulgate, prepared for Pope Clement VIII in 1592.
When other Christians become Catholic: the individual becomes Eastern Catholic, not Roman Catholic
no doubt, by a further extension Roman Church may be used as equivalent to Latin Church for the patriarchate
When other Christians become Catholic: the individual becomes Eastern Catholic, not Roman Catholic
Fortescue, Adrian (1910). "Latin Church". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) 2002:ISBN 1-57910-918-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Hedley, John (1911). "Immaculate Conception, The". InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 334–335.
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