Laptops are used in a variety of settings, such as at work (especially onbusiness trips), ineducation, forplaying games,content creating,web browsing, for personalmultimedia, and for generalhome computer use. They can be powered using either continuouswall power or arechargeable battery, and can be folded shut for convenient storage and transportation, making them suitable formobile use.[3] Laptops feature all the standardinput and output components of a desktop computer in a single compact unit, including a display screen (usually 11–17 in or 280–430 mm in diagonal size), speakers, a keyboard, and a pointing device (usually atrackpad). Hardware specifications vary significantly between different types, models, andprice points.
Design elements, form factors, and construction can also vary significantly between models depending on intended use. Examples of specialized models of laptops include2-in-1 laptops, with keyboards that either bedetached orpivoted out of view from the display (often marketed having a "laptop mode"), andrugged laptops, for use in construction ormilitary applications.Portable computers, which later developed into modern laptops, were originally considered to be a smallniche market, mostly for specialized field applications, such as in the military, for accountants, or travelling sales representatives. As portable computers evolved into modern laptops, they became widely used for a variety of purposes.[4]
The history of the laptop follows closely behind the development of thepersonal computer itself. A "personal, portable information manipulator" was imagined byAlan Kay atXerox PARC in 1968,[5] and described in his 1972 paper as the "Dynabook".[6] The IBM Special Computer APL Machine Portable (SCAMP) was demonstrated in 1973.[7] This prototype was based on theIBM PALM processor.[8] TheIBM 5100, the first commercially availableportable computer, appeared in September 1975, and was based on the SCAMP prototype.[9]
As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of portables increased rapidly. The first "laptop-sized notebook computer" was theEpson HX-20,[10][11] invented (patented) bySuwa Seikosha's Yukio Yokozawa in July 1980,[12] introduced at theCOMDEX computer show inLas Vegas by Japanese companySeiko Epson in 1981,[13][11] and released in July 1982.[11][14] It had anLCD screen, a rechargeable battery, and a calculator-size printer, in a 1.6 kg (3.5 lb) chassis, the size of anA4notebook.[11] It was described as a "laptop" and "notebook" computer in its patent.[12]
Some laptops in the 1980s using redplasma displays could only be used when connected to AC power, and had a built in power supply.[23]
The development ofmemory cards was driven in the 1980s by the need for a floppy-disk-drive alternative, having lower power consumption, less weight, and reduced volume in laptops. The Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) was an industry association created in 1989 to promote a standard for memory cards in PCs. The specification for PCMCIA type I cards, later renamed PC Cards, was first released in 1990.[24][25]
Displays reached 640x480 (VGA) resolution by 1988 (Compaq SLT/286), and color screens started becoming a common upgrade in 1991,[26] with increases in resolution and screen size occurring frequently until the introduction of 17" screen laptops in 2003. Hard drives started to be used in portables, encouraged by the introduction of 3.5" drives in the late 1980s, and became common in laptops starting with the introduction of 2.5" and smaller drives around 1990; capacities have typically lagged behind those of physically larger desktop drives.
By 1992 the laptop market was growing about three times faster than that of desktops.[27] By 1994 laptops were also more profitable than desktops, and accounted for one sixth of the personal computer market, up from one twentieth in 1990. They was so important thatDell risked, experts said, "second-rate status" in the industry for not having a strong laptop product line.[28]
Optical disc drives became common in full-size laptops around 1997: initially, CD-ROM drives, supplanted by CD-R, then DVD, thenBlu-ray drives with writing capability. Starting around 2011, the trend shifted against internal optical drives, and as of 2022, they have largely disappeared, though are still readily available as externalperipherals.
Resolutions of laptopwebcams are 720p (HD), or 480p in lower-end laptops.[29] The earliest-known laptops with1080p (Full HD) webcams, like the Samsung 700G7C, were released in the early 2010s.[30]
Etymology
The wordlaptop, modeled after the termdesktop (as indesktop computer), refers to the fact that the computer can be practically placed on the user'slap; while the wordnotebook refers to most laptops being approximately similar in size to a papernotebook. As of 2024[update], inAmerican English, the termslaptop andnotebook are used interchangeably;[31] in otherdialects of English, one or the other may be preferred.[32] The termnotebook originally referred toa type of portable computer that was smaller and lighter than mainstream laptops of the time, but has since come to mean the same thing and no longer refers to any specific size.
The termslaptop andnotebook trace their origins to the early 1980s, coined to describeportable computers in a size class smaller than the mainstream units (so-called "luggables") but larger thanpocket computers.[33][34] The etymologistWilliam Safire traced the origin oflaptop to some time before 1984;[35] the earliest attestation oflaptop found by theOxford English Dictionary dates to 1983.[36] The word is modeled after the termdesktop, as indesktop computer.[35]Notebook, meanwhile, emerged earlier in 1982[37] to describeEpson'sHX-20 portable, whose dimensions roughly correspond to aletter-sizedpad of paper.[34][38]: 9 [39] Notebooks emerged as their own separate market from laptops with the release of theNEC UltraLite in 1988.[40]: 16
Notebooks and laptops continued to occupy distinct market segments into the mid-1990s,[41] but ergonomic considerations and customer preference for larger screens soon led to notebooksconverging with laptops in the late 1990s.[42] Now, the termslaptop andnotebook are synonymous, with any preference between the two being a variation in dialect.[42][32]
Since the 1970s introduction of portable computers, their forms have changed significantly, resulting in a variety of visually and technologically differing subclasses. Excepting distinct legal trademark around terms (notablyUltrabook), hard distinctions between these classes were rare, and their usage has varied over time and between sources. Since the late 2010s, more specific terms have become less commonly used, with sizes distinguished largely by the size of the screen.
There were in the past a number of marketing categories for smaller and larger laptop computers; these included "notebook" and "subnotebook" models, low cost "netbooks", and "ultra-mobile PCs" where the size class overlapped with devices likesmartphone and handheldtablets, and "Desktop replacement" laptops for machines notably larger and heavier than typical to operate more powerfulprocessors orgraphics hardware. All of these terms have fallen out of favor as the size of mainstream laptops has gone down and their capabilities have gone up; except for niche models, laptop sizes tend to be distinguished by the size of the screen, and for more powerful models, by any specialized purpose the machine is intended for, such as a "gaming laptop" or a "mobile workstation" for professional use.
A mobile workstation, also known as a desktop-replacement computer, is a type of laptop that is significantly more powerful—and generally more expensive—than a standard laptop computer. They are generally intended for professional use and to serve as desktop replacements. Because of their high performance, however, they also have poorer battery life than most other laptops and require additional cooling systems.[43] Examples of mobile workstations include theThinkpad P-series and theHP ZBook line.[44][45]
A gaming laptop is a type of laptop that is primarily used to playvideo games. Like mobile workstations, they are more powerful than standard laptops, but gaming laptops tend to prioritize features like a highrefresh rate, aGPU that supportsray tracing, andRGB lighting.[46] Examples of gaming laptops include theLenovo Legion series andAlienware laptops.[47]
The latest trend oftechnological convergence in the portable computer industry spawned a broad range of devices, which combined features of several previously separate device types. Thehybrids,convertibles, and2-in-1s emerged as crossover devices, which share traits of both tablets and laptops. All such devices have atouchscreen display designed to allow users to work in atablet mode, using eithermulti-touch gestures or astylus/digital pen.
Convertibles are devices with the ability to conceal a hardware keyboard. Keyboards on such devices can be flipped, rotated, or slid behind the back of the chassis, thus transforming from a laptop into a tablet.Hybrids have a keyboard detachment mechanism, and due to this feature, all critical components are situated in the part with the display.2-in-1s can have a hybrid or a convertible form, often dubbed2-in-1 detachable and2-in-1 convertibles respectively, but are distinguished by the ability to run a desktopOS, such asWindows 10. 2-in-1s are often marketed aslaptop replacement tablets.[48] As with nearly all of these distinctions, they are marketing terms first and technical distinctions secondarily, and vendors are not consistent in using a single name for a given type of device.
2-in-1s are often very thin, around 10 millimetres (0.39 in), and light devices with a long battery life. 2-in-1s are distinguished from mainstream tablets as they feature anx86-architectureCPU (typically a low- orultra-low-voltage model), such as the IntelCore i5, run a full-featured desktopOS likeWindows 10, and have a number of typical laptopI/O ports, such asUSB 3 andMini DisplayPort.
2-in-1s are designed to be used not only as amedia consumption device but also as valid desktop or laptop replacements, due to their ability to rundesktop applications, such asAdobe Photoshop. It is possible to connect multipleperipheral devices, such as a mouse, keyboard, and several external displays to a modern 2-in-1.
Microsoft Surface Pro-series devices andSurface Book are examples of modern 2-in-1 detachable, whereasLenovo Yoga-series computers are a variant of 2-in-1 convertibles. While the olderSurface RT andSurface 2 have the same chassis design as the Surface Pro, their use ofARM processors andWindows RT do not classify them as 2-in-1s, but as hybrid tablets.[49]
The distinction between a "tablet with a keyboard" and a 2-in-1 laptop generally rests on the operating system; if they run amobile operating system, such asAndroid orIOS, they are generally marketed as tablets, while if they run a general purpose operating system likeWindows orMacOS, they are generally marketed as laptops.
An ultraportable[b] refers to a laptop that is smaller in size than other, contemporary laptops. Historically, laptops smaller than a sheet ofA4 paper were referred to asnotebook computers, and laptops smaller than notebooks were calledsubnotebooks; however, as laptops became smaller and more portable, "notebook" and "laptop" became interchangeable, leading to the retirement of bothnotebook andsubnotebook in favor ofultraportable.[50][51][52] Examples of ultraportable laptops include theMacBook Air and theThinkpad X-series.[53][54]
A netbook refers to a type of laptop that is smaller in size than a standard laptop, but also has diminished performance and is usually only suitable for basic tasks like web browsing and document viewing.[55] Examples of netbooks include theAsus Eee PC line and theDell Inspiron Mini.[56] The termnetbook is now seen as outdated and referring to an archaic class of laptops; the modern successor to the netbook is theChromebook, which runs Google'sChromeOS.[57]
A rugged laptop, or rugged computer, is designed to reliably operate in harsh usage conditions such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, and wet or dusty environments. Rugged laptops are bulkier, heavier, and much more expensive than regular laptops,[58] and thus are seldom seen in regular consumer use.
The basic components of laptops function identically to their desktop counterparts. Traditionally they wereminiaturized and adapted to mobile use, The design restrictions on power, size, andcooling of laptops limit the maximum performance of laptop parts compared to that of desktop components, although that difference has increasingly narrowed.[59]
In general, laptop components are not intended to be replaceable or upgradable by the end-user, except for components that can be detached; in the past, batteries and optical drives were commonly exchangeable. In the past, many laptops featured socketed processors but as of 2025 virtually all laptops use processors that are soldered to the motherboard. Many laptops come with RAM that is soldered to the motherboard and cannot be easily replaced.
This restriction is one of the major differences between laptops and desktop computers, because the large "tower" cases used in desktop computers are designed so that newmotherboards,hard disks,sound cards,RAM, and other components can be added. Memory and storage can often be upgraded with some disassembly, but with the most compact laptops, there may be no upgradeable components at all.[60]
The following sections summarize the differences and distinguishing features of laptop components in comparison to desktop personal computer parts.[61]
Internal components
Display
The typical laptop has a screen in a clamshell form factor that when unfolded is upright to the user. Detachables typically use a kickstand to stay upright.Laptop screens most commonly useliquid-crystal display (LCD) technology, althoughOLED panels are becoming increasingly popular.[62] The display interfaces with the motherboard using theembedded DisplayPort protocol via theLow-voltage differential signaling (LVDS) 30 or 40 pin connector. Earlier laptops use theFPD-Link standard. The panels are mainly manufactured byAU Optronics,BOE Technology,LG Display orSamsung Display. Externally, it can be aglossy or amatte (anti-glare) screen.
In the past, there was a broader range of marketing terms (both formal and informal) to distinguish between different sizes of laptops. These includednetbooks,subnotebooks,ultra-mobile PC, anddesktop replacement computers; these are sometimes still used informally, although they are generally not used anymore in manufacturer marketing.
As of 2021, mainstream consumer laptops tend to come with 11", 13", 14", 15" or 16" screens. Larger and smaller models are available, but less common – there is no clear dividing line in minimum or maximum size. Machines small enough to be handheld (screens in the 6–8" range) can be marketed either as very small laptops or "handheld PCs", while the distinction between the largest laptops and "All-in-One" desktops is whether they fold for travel.
Having a higher resolution display allows more items to fit onscreen at a time, improving the user's ability to multitask, although, at the higher resolutions on smaller screens, the resolution may only serve to display sharper graphics and text rather than increasing the usable area. Since the introduction of theMacBook Pro with Retina display in 2012, there has been an increase in the availability of "HiDPI" (or highpixel density) displays; as of 2025,[update] this is generally considered to be anything higher than 1920 pixels wide. On PC laptops, this is most often 4K (3840-pixel-wide) resolution, although QHD (2560-pixel-wide) resolution is also a common option, andnon-standard display resolutions are becoming more frequent.
Most laptop displays have a maximumrefresh rate of 60 Hz. The Dell M17x andSamsung 700G7A, both released in 2011, were among the first laptops to feature a 120 Hz refresh rate,[63][64] and more such laptops have appeared in the years since; higher refresh rate is often a distinguishing characteristic of laptops sold for gaming.
Central processing unit (CPU)
LaptopCPUs have advanced power-saving features and produce less heat than those intended for desktop use. The number of processor cores has generally increased over time, and as of 2025, mainstream laptops can have as few as 6 cores and as many as 16, with high end workstation laptops having as many as 24, and a few low end or ultra-portable models still being available with 4 cores. In many cases, this involvesa mix of power-optimized and performance-optimized processor cores.
For the low price and mainstream performance, there is no longer a significant performance difference between laptop and desktop CPUs, but at the high end, the fastest desktop CPUs still substantially outperform the fastest laptop processors, at the expense of massively higher power consumption and heat generation. Laptop processors often have a very broad range in their peak power consumption vs. continuous – typically continuous power is around 15-20 watts on mainstream laptops, 45-60 watts on higher performance models, but these tend to be able to go much higher for short periods. By contrast, desktop processors tend to start at a 65W continuous rating with performance models in the 100-120W range being very common, and specialized "high end desktop" and workstation models in some cases exceeding 300W.[65]
There has been a wide range ofCPUs designed for laptops available; as of 2025, the market consists primarily of theX86 andARM architectures. Major manufacturers includeIntel,AMD,Apple andQualcomm. In the past, thePowerPC architecture was also common on Apple laptops (iBook andPowerBook). Between around 2000 to 2014, most full-size laptops had socketed, replaceable CPUs; on thinner models, the CPU was soldered on the motherboard and was not replaceable or upgradable without replacing the motherboard. Since 2015, Intel has not offered new laptop CPU models with pins to be interchangeable, preferringball grid array chip packages which have to be soldered, and as of 2025 this is true for mainstream laptops from all processor lines.[66]
In the past, some laptops have used a desktop processor instead of the laptop version, which resulted in higher performance at the cost of much greater weight, heat, and limited battery life. Since around 2010, the practice has been restricted to small-volume gaming models. Laptop CPUs are rarely able to beoverclocked.
Graphics processing unit (GPU)
On most laptops, the GPU is integrated into the CPU to conserve power and space. This was introduced by Intel with theCore i-series of mobile processors in 2010, followed by similarAMD APU processors in January 2011.
Higher-end laptops intended for gaming or professional 3D work tend to come with dedicated graphics processors on the motherboard or as an internalexpansion card. Since 2011, these almost always involve switchable graphics so that when there is no demand for the higher performance dedicated graphics processor, the more power-efficientintegrated graphics processor will be used.Nvidia Optimus andAMD Hybrid Graphics are examples of this sort of system of switchable graphics. Before that, lower-end machines tended to use graphics processors integrated into thesystem chipset, while higher-end machines had a separate graphics processor.
In the past, laptopslacking aseparate graphics processor were limited in their utility for gaming and professional applications involving3D graphics, but the capabilities of CPU-integrated graphics have converged with the low-end of dedicated graphics processors since the mid-2010s. For laptops possessing limited onboard graphics capability but sufficient I/O throughput, anexternal GPU (eGPU) can provide additional graphics power at the cost of physical space and portability.
Traditionally, the systemRAM on laptops (as well as on desktop computers) was physically separate from the graphics memory used by the GPU. Apple'sM seriesSoCs feature a unified pool of memory for both the system and the GPU; this approach can produce substantial efficiency gains for some applications, while potentially limiting peak graphics performance for others.
Random-access memory (RAM)
As of 2025, whether laptops use removable memory or memory soldered to the motherboard is highly variable. When removable, most laptops useSO-DIMM slots in whichRAM is mounted.[61] A new form factor, theCAMM module, is slated to fix the size and timing limitation. Before 2000, most laptops used proprietary memory modules if their memory was upgradable.
In the early 2010s, high end laptops such as the 2011 Samsung700G7A have passed the 10 GB RAM barrier, featuring 16 GB of RAM.[67]
When upgradeable, memory slots are sometimes accessible from the bottom of the laptop for ease of upgrading; in other cases, accessing them requires significant disassembly. Most laptops have two memory slots, although some will have only one, either for cost savings or because some amount of memory is soldered. In the past, some high end engineering workstations and gaming laptops had four slots, although this is extremely rare in 2025 with engineering workstations converging on a single CAMM slot.
As of 2025,[update] 16 GB RAM is most common, with lower-end models occasionally having 8 GB, and 4 GB configurations being nearly unknown. Higher-end laptops may come with 64 GB of RAM or more.
Integrated audio
Laptops usually have built-in speakers and built-in microphones. However, integrated speakers may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space.
Input devices
Closeup of atouchpad on anAcer laptop, where buttons and the touch-sensitive surface are sharedCloseup of aTrackPoint cursor and UltraNav buttons on aThinkPad laptopInterfaces on a ThinkPad laptop (2011):Ethernet network port (center),VGA (left),DisplayPort (top right) andUSB 2.0 (bottom right). Due to the trend towards very flat laptops and the widespread use ofWLAN, the relatively high Ethernet socket is no longer mandatory in today's devices, as is the technically outdated VGA.
An alphanumeric keyboard is used to enter text, data, and other commands (e.g.,function keys). Atouchpad (also called a trackpad), apointing stick, or both, are used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, and an integrated keyboard[68] is used for typing. Some touchpads have buttons separate from the touch surface, while others share the surface. A quick double-tap is typically registered as a click, and operating systems may recognize multi-finger touch gestures.
An external keyboard and mouse may be connected using aUSB port or wirelessly, viaBluetooth or similar technology. Some laptops havemultitouchtouchscreen displays, either available as an option or standard. Most laptops havewebcams andmicrophones, which can be used to communicate with other people with both moving images and sound, viaweb conferencing orvideo-calling software.
Storage drives
Early methods of storage
The earliest laptops most often usedfloppy disks for storage, although a few used either RAM disk or tape. By the late 1980shard disk drives had become the standard form of storage.
Hard disk drives
Between 1990 and 2009, almost all laptops typically had ahard disk drive (HDD) for storage. Since around 1990, where a hard drive is present it will typically be a 2.5-inch drive; some very compact laptops support even smaller 1.8-inch HDDs, and a very small number used 1"Microdrives.
As of 2025, HDDs are essentially extinct in new laptops – although very large capacity drives remain common in desktops and used externally.
As of 2025, virtually all laptops useNVMEsolid-state drives for storage, most usually in one or moreM.2 slots on non-MacOS laptops. Macs have consistently used soldered NVME storage (integrated with the motherboard) since 2018, and non-removable SSDs are uncommon but not unknown on other manufacturers' laptops.
Solid state drives
Solid-state drives (SSD) have gradually come to replace hard drives in virtually all cases. Solid-state drives are faster and more power-efficient, as well as eliminating the hazard of damage or data corruption caused by a laptop's physical impacts, as they use no moving/mechanical parts.[69]
Between their initial introduction around 2008 and the mid-2010s, most SSDs matched the size/shape of a laptop hard drive, but starting around 2014 they have been increasingly replaced with smallermSATA orM.2 cards. In many cases, they are more compact as well. Initially, in the late 2000s, SSDs were substantially more expensive than HDDs, but prices converged for smaller drives in the late 2010s
NVM Express drives
SSDs intended for laptop use which are compatible with the newer and much fasterNVM Express standard are only available as cards.
As of 2025,[update] very few laptops contain space for a 2.5" drive, accepting only M.2 cards; Macs and a few ultraportable non-Mac laptops have storage soldered to the motherboard. For those that can, they can typically contain a single 2.5-inch drive; in the past, some of the largest laptops could house two drives.
Optical disc drives
Optical disc drives capable of playingCD-ROMs, compact discs (CD),DVDs, and in some cases,Blu-ray discs (BD), were nearly universal on full-sized models between the mid-1990s and the early 2010s. As of 2025,[update] drives are virtually unknown in new laptops, when needed they can be connected via USB instead.
Ports
Input and output
On a typical laptop, there are severalUSBports; if they use only the older USB connectors instead ofUSB-C, they will typically have an external monitor port (as of 2025, almost alwaysHDMI). An analog audio in/out port (in a combined socket) is common.
Apple, in a 2015 version of itsMacBook, transitioned from a number of differentI/O ports to a single USB-C port.[70] This port can be used both for charging and connecting a variety of devices through the use ofaftermarket adapters. Apple has since transitioned back to using a number of different ports.
Although being common until the end of the 2000s decade,Ethernet network ports are uncommon in modern consumer laptops; they are more common in business model.
Higher-end systems typically includeThunderbolt ports, which also work as USB-C ports.
Storage
A variety ofexternal HDDs orNAS data storage servers with support ofRAID technology can be attached to virtually any laptop over such interfaces asUSB,FireWire,eSATA, orThunderbolt, or over a wired or wireless network to further increase space for the storage of data. Laptops may also incorporate aSD ormicroSD card slot. This enables users to download digital pictures from an SD card onto a laptop, thus enabling them to delete the SD card's contents to free up space for taking new pictures.
Expansion cards
As of 2025, very few laptops support expansion cards, with the primary means of expansion being via USB-C or Thunderbolt.
In the past, aPC Card (formerlyPCMCIA) orExpressCard slot for expansion was often present on laptops to allow adding and removing functionality, even when the laptop is powered on; these are becoming increasingly rare since the introduction ofUSB 3.0. Some internal subsystems such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or a wireless cellular modem can be implemented as replaceable internal expansion cards, usually accessible under an access cover on the bottom of the laptop. The standard for such cards isPCI Express, which comes in bothmini and even smallerM.2 sizes. In newer laptops, it is not uncommon to also seeMicro SATA (mSATA) functionality on PCI Express Mini or M.2 card slots allowing the use of those slots for SATA-based solid-state drives.[71]
As of 2025, laptops are broadly divided between being powered only by USB-C connectors vs. having a dedicatedDC power connector; most systems since the mid-2010s that have both connectors can be powered by either.
Dedicated connectors are typically cylindrical/barrel-shapedcoaxial power connectors; some vendors such asLenovo make use of rectangular. Before the mid-2000s, specialized connectors were much more common.
Some connector heads feature a center pin to allow the end device to determine the power supply type by measuring the resistance between it and the connector's negative pole (outer surface). Vendors may block charging if a power supply is not recognized as the original part, which could deny the legitimate use of universal third-party chargers.[73]
With the advent ofUSB-C,portable electronics made increasing use of it for bothpower delivery and data transfer. Its support for 20 V (common laptop power supply voltage) and 5 A typically suffices for low to mid-end laptops, but some with higher power demands such asgaming laptops depend on dedicated DC connectors to handle currents beyond 5 A without risking overheating, some even above 10 A. Additionally, dedicated DC connectors are more durable and less prone to wear and tear from frequent reconnection, as their design is less delicate.[74]
Battery life is highly variable by model and workload and can range from one hour to nearly a day. A battery's performancegradually decreases over time; a noticeable reduction in capacity is typically evident after two to three years of regular use, depending on the charging and discharging pattern and the design of the battery. Innovations in laptops and batteries have seen situations in which the battery can provide up to 24 hours of continued operation, assuming average power consumption levels. An example is the HP EliteBook 6930p when used with its ultra-capacity battery.[75]
Laptops with removable batteries may support larger replacement batteries with extended capacity.
A laptop's battery is charged using an externalpower supply, which is plugged into a wall outlet. The power supply outputs a DC voltage typically in the range of 7.2—24 volts. The power supply is usually external and connected to the laptop through a DC connector cable. In most cases, it can charge the battery and power the laptop simultaneously. When the battery is fully charged, the laptop continues to run on power supplied by the external power supply, avoiding battery use. If the used power supply is not strong enough to power computing components and charge the battery simultaneously, the battery may charge in a shorter period of time if the laptop is turned off or sleeping. The charger typically adds about 400 grams (0.88 lb) to the overall transporting weight of a laptop, although some models are substantially heavier or lighter. Most 2016-era laptops use asmart battery, a rechargeablebattery pack with a built-inbattery management system (BMS). The smart battery can internally measure voltage and current, and deduce charge level and State of Health (SoH) parameters, indicating the state of the cells.[citation needed]
Laptop power supply with cylindrical coaxial DC power connector
Cooling
Waste heat from the operation is difficult to remove in the compact internal space of a laptop. The earliest laptops used passive cooling, but since the mid-1990s nearly all laptops have used fans to use forced air cooling. Earlier laptops usedheat sinks, but since the 2000s, virtually all laptops instead rely onheat pipes or move waste heat towards the edges of the device, to allow for a much smaller and compact fan and heat sink cooling system. Waste heat is usually exhausted away from the device operator towards the rear or sides of the device. Multiple air intake paths are used since some intakes can be blocked, such as when the device is placed on a soft conforming surface like a chair cushion. Secondary device temperature monitoring may reduce performance or trigger an emergency shutdown if it is unable to dissipate heat, such as if the laptop were to be left running and placed inside a carrying case. Aftermarket cooling pads with external fans can be used with laptops to reduce operating temperatures.
Accessories
A common accessory for laptops is a laptop sleeve, laptop skin, or laptop case, which provides a degree of protection from scratches. Sleeves, which are distinguished by being relatively thin and flexible, are most commonly made ofneoprene, with sturdier ones made oflow-resilience polyurethane. Some laptop sleeves are wrapped inballistic nylon to provide some measure ofwaterproofing. Bulkier and sturdier cases can be made of metal with polyurethane padding inside and may have locks for added security. Metal, padded cases also offer protection against impacts and drops. Another common accessory is alaptop cooler, a device that helps lower the internal temperature of the laptop either actively or passively. A common active method involves using electric fans to draw heat away from the laptop, while a passive method might involve propping the laptop up on some type of pad so it can receive more airflow. Some stores sell laptop pads that enable a reclining person on a bed to use a laptop.
External equipment
Docking station
Docking station and laptop
Adocking station (sometimes referred to simply as adock) is a laptop accessory that contains multiple ports and in some cases expansion slots or bays for fixed or removable drives. A laptop connects and disconnects to a docking station, typically through a single large proprietary connector. A docking station is an especially popular laptop accessory in a corporate computing environment, due to the possibility of a docking station transforming a laptop into a full-featured desktop replacement, yet allowing for its easy release. This ability can be advantageous to "road warrior" employees who have to travel frequently for work, and yet who also come into the office. If more ports are needed, or their position on a laptop is inconvenient, one can use a cheaper passive device known as aport replicator. These devices mate to the connectors on the laptop, such as throughUSB orFireWire.
Charging trolleys
Laptop charging trolleys, also known as laptop trolleys or laptop carts, are mobile storage containers to charge multiplelaptops,netbooks, andtablet computers at the same time. The trolleys are used in schools that have replaced their traditional static computer labs[76] suites of desktop equipped with "tower" computers, but do not have enough plug sockets in an individual classroom to charge all of the devices. The trolleys can be wheeled between rooms andclassrooms so that all students and teachers in a particular building can access fullychargedIT equipment.[77]
Laptop charging trolleys are also used to deter and protect against opportunistic and organized theft. Schools, especially those withopen plan designs, are often prime targets forthieves who steal high-value items. Laptops, netbooks, and tablets are among the highest–value portable items in a school. Moreover, laptops can easily be concealed under clothing and stolen from buildings. Many types of laptop–charging trolleys are designed and constructed to protect against theft. They are generally made out of steel, and the laptops remain locked up while not in use. Although the trolleys can be moved between areas from one classroom to another, they can often be mounted or locked to the floor, support pillars, or walls to prevent thieves from stealing the laptops, especially overnight.[76]
In some laptops, solar panels are able to generate enough solar power for the laptop to operate.[78] TheOne Laptop Per Child Initiative released theOLPC XO-1 laptop which was tested and successfully operated by use of solar panels.[79] They were designing anOLPC XO-3 laptop with these features. The OLPC XO-3 was planned to operate with 2 watts of electricity.[80][81]Samsung has also designed the NC215S solar–powered notebook that was planned to be sold commercially in the U.S. market.[82]
Feature classifications
Universally standard
These are features, hardware, or components that can be found on virtually all laptops.
These are features, hardware, or components that were once very common or completely ubiquitous, have been declining in prominence, but are still widely available among all classes of laptops and can be found on virtually all enterprise-class devices.
Large size, not as compatible with other devices, cables and protocols as USB-C. NeitherUSB-B, norMini USB/microUSB were ever standard on laptops; the former is known almost exclusively as the "printer port", while the latter is known as the "phone charging port".
USB-C charging ports have cross-compatibility between different chargers and laptops, a small size, and can be used for data transfer
Late 2010s-early 2020s. This port continues to be universally standard on Apple laptops.
Obsolete
AmodemPCMCIA card on a 1990s ThinkPad. The card would normally fully insert into the socket.
These are features, hardware, or components that were once very common or completely ubiquitous, but are found on almost no new laptops today (if at all). Certain modern laptops, like thePanasonic Toughbook line, have continued to maintain support for a few of these features.
Feature
Replacement
Reason for removal
When obsolete
Reset ("cold restart") button and instant power off button in holes (needed a thin metal tool to press)
Power button
Niche use, inconvenient and cumbersome to press, operating systems became more stable
1990s
Integrated charger or power adapter inside the laptop
External charger
Made laptop bulkier, bigger, and heavier, and no great drawbacks with an external charger
1990s
Dedicated Media buttons (Internet, Volume, Play, Pause, Next, Previous)
Media buttons on function keys
Save space, less moving parts, dedicated buttons out of fashion
As trackpads improved in accuracy, size, and comfort, the pointing stick was gradually made obsolete; except for theLenovo Thinkpad line, where it continues to feature in almost all laptops as theTrackPoint
The concept of expanding the functionality of a laptop with hardware disappeared. Cards that served as serial data transfer connectors were replaced by USB
Optical discs and drives became uncommon, and the drive made laptops heavier, bigger, and more cumbersome
Early-mid 2010s
Modularity
Opened bottom covers allow replacement of RAM and storage modules (Lenovo G555)
Some of the components of earlier models of laptops can easily be replaced without opening completely its bottom part, such as the keyboard, battery, hard disk, memory modules, and CPU cooling fan.
Some of the components of recent models of laptops reside inside. Replacing most of its components, such as the keyboard, battery, hard disk, memory modules, CPU cooling fan, etc., requires the removal of either the top or bottom part, the removal of the motherboard, and returning them.
In some types, solder and glue are used to mount components such as RAM, storage, and batteries, making repairs additionally difficult.[83][84]
Compared to desktop computers
Advantages
Feature
Details
Portability
Laptops are highly portable compared to desktop PCs.[85] Physical portability allows a laptop to be used in many places—not only at home and the office but also during commuting and flights, in coffee shops, in lecture halls and libraries, at clients' locations or a meeting room, etc. Within a home, portability enables laptop users to move their devices from room to room.
Productivity
Using a laptop in places where a desktop PC cannot be used can help employees and students to increase their productivity on work or school tasks, such as an office worker reading their work e-mails during an hour-long commute by train, or a student doing their homework at the university coffee shop during a break between lectures, for example.
Up-to-date information
Using a single laptop prevents fragmentation of files across multiple PCs as the files exist in a single location and are always up-to-date.
Connectivity
A key advantage of laptops is that they almost always have integrated connectivity features such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, and sometimes connection to cellular networks either through native integration or use of a hotspot. Wi-Fi networks and laptop programs are especially widespread at university campuses.[86]
Size
Laptops are smaller than desktop PCs. This is beneficial when space is at a premium, for example in small apartments and student dorms. When not in use, a laptop can be closed and put away in a desk drawer.
Low power consumption
Laptops are several times more power-efficient than desktops. A typical laptop uses 10–100 W, compared to 200–800W for desktops. This could be particularly beneficial for large businesses, which run hundreds of personal computers thus economies of scale, and homes where there is a computer running 24/7 (such as a home media server, print server, etc.).
Low noise levels
Laptops are typically much quieter than desktops, due both to the components (often silent solid-state drives replacing hard drives) and to less heat production leading to the use of fewer, sometimes no cooling fans. The latter has given rise to laptops that have no moving parts, resulting in complete silence during use.
Battery
A charged laptop can continue to be used in case of a power outage and is not affected by short power interruptions and blackouts, an issue that is present with desktop PCs.
All-in-One
Designed to be portable, most modern laptops have all components integrated into the chassis. For desktops (excluding all-in-ones) this is usually divided into the desktop "tower" (the unit with the CPU, hard drive, power supply, etc.), keyboard, mouse, display screen, and optional peripherals such as speakers.
A teacher using a laptop as part of a workshop for school childrenA man using a laptop on a park bench
Disadvantages
Compared to desktop PCs, laptops have disadvantages in the following areas:
Performance
The performance of laptops is often worse than comparably priced desktops. The upper limits of performance of laptops remain lower than desktops, due to mostly practical reasons, such as decreased battery life, increased size and heat, etc.
Upgradeability
The upgradeability of laptops is limited compared to tower desktops, due to technical and economic reasons. In general, hard drives and memory can be upgraded easily. Due to the integrated nature of laptops, however, the motherboard, CPU, and graphics, are seldom officially upgradeable. Some efforts towards industry standard parts and layouts have been attempted, such asCommon Building Block, but the industry remains largelyproprietary and fragmented. There is no industry-wide standardform factor for laptops; Moreover, starting with 2013 models, laptops have become increasingly integrated (soldered) with the motherboard for most of its components (CPU, SSD, RAM, etc.) to reduce size and upgradeability prospects.[66]
Durability
A cloggedheat sink on a laptop after 2.5 years of use Laptops are less durable than desktops/PCs. However, the durability of the laptop depends on the user if proper maintenance is done then the laptop can work longer.Laptop keyboard with its keys (except the space bar) removed, revealing crumbs, pet hair, and other detritus to be cleaned away Because of their portability, laptops are subject to more wear and physical damage than desktops, additionally hindered by their integrated nature. A liquid spill onto the keyboard, while a minor issue with a desktop system, can damage the internals of a laptop and destroy the computer, resulting in a costly repair or entire replacement of laptops. One study found that a laptop is three times more likely to break during the first year of use than a desktop.[87]
To maintain a laptop, it is recommended to clean it every three months for dirt, debris, dust, and food particles. Most cleaning kits consist of a lint-free ormicrofiber cloth for the screen and keyboard, compressed air for getting dust out of the cooling fan, and a cleaning solution. Harsh chemicals such as bleach should not be used to clean a laptop, as they can damage it.[88]
Heating and cooling
Laptops rely on extremely compact cooling systems involving afan andheat sink that can fail from blockage caused by accumulated airborne dust and debris. Most laptops do not have any type of removable dust collection filter over the air intake for these cooling systems, resulting in a system that gradually conducts more heat and noise as the years pass. In some cases, the laptop starts to overheat even at idle load levels. This dust is usually stuck inside where the fan and heat sink meet, where it can not be removed by a casual cleaning and vacuuming. Most of the time, compressed air can dislodge the dust and debris but may not entirely remove it. After the device is turned on, the loose debris is reaccumulated into the cooling system by the fans. Complete disassembly is usually required to clean the laptop entirely. However, preventative maintenance such as regular cleaning of the heat sink via compressed air can prevent dust build-up on the heat sink. Many laptops are difficult to disassemble by the average user and contain components that are sensitive toelectrostatic discharge (ESD).
Battery life
Battery life is limited because thecapacity drops with time, eventually warranting replacement after as little as 2–3 years. A new battery typically stores enough energy to run the laptop for five to six hours or more, depending on usage and the battery size. The battery is often easily replaceable and a higher capacity model may be obtained for longer charging and discharging time. Some laptops do not have the usual removable battery and have to be brought to the service center of their manufacturer or a third-party laptop service center to have their battery replaced. Replacement batteries can also be expensive, depending on the availability of the parts. Desktop PCs do not face similar problems since they are reliant on long lastingpower supplies.
Because they are valuable, commonly used, portable, and easy to hide in a backpack or other type of bag, laptops are oftenstolen. Every day, over 1,600 laptops go missing from U.S. airports.[89] The cost of stolen business or personal data, and of the resulting problems (identity theft,credit card fraud, breach of privacy), can be many times the value of the stolen laptop itself. Consequently, the physical protection of laptops and the safeguarding of data contained in them are both of great importance. Some laptops, primarily professional and educational devices, have aKensington security slot, which can be used to tether them with a security cable and lock. In addition, modern operating systems have features such asActivation Lock or similar that prevents the use of the device without credentials. As of 2015,[update] some laptops also have additional security elements added, includingbiometric security components such asWindows Hello orTouch ID.[90] Software such asGadgetTrak and Find My Mac have been engineered to help people locate and recover their stolen laptops in the event of theft. Setting one's laptop with a password on its firmware (protection against going to firmware setup or booting), internal HDD/SSD (protection against accessing it and loading an operating system on it afterward), and every user account of the operating system are additional security measures that a user should do.[91][92] Fewer than 5% of lost or stolen laptops are recovered by the companies that own them,[93] however, that number may decrease due to a variety of companies and software solutions specializing in laptop recovery. In the 2010s, the common availability ofwebcams on laptops raised privacy concerns. InRobbins v. Lower Merion School District (Eastern District of Pennsylvania 2010), school-issued laptops loaded with special software enabled staff from two high schools to take secret webcam shots of students at home, via their students' laptops.[94][95][96]
Ergonomics and health effects
Wrists
Prolonged use of laptops can causerepetitive strain injury because of their small, flat keyboard and trackpad pointing devices.[97] Usage of separate, externalergonomic keyboards and pointing devices is recommended to prevent injury when working for long periods of time; they can be connected to a laptop easily by USB,Bluetooth or via a docking station. Some health standards require ergonomic keyboards at workplaces.
Neck and spine
A laptop's integrated screen often requires users to lean over for a better view, which can cause neck or spinal injuries. A larger and higher-quality external screen can be connected to almost any laptop to alleviate this and to provide additional screen space for more productive work. Another solution is to use acomputer stand.
Possible effect on fertility
A study by theState University of New York researchers found that heat generated from laptops can increase the temperature of the lap of male users when balancing the computer on their lap, potentially puttingsperm count at risk. The study, which included roughly two dozen men between the ages of 21 and 35, found that the sitting position required to balance a laptop can increase scrotum temperature by as much as 2.1 °C (4 °F). However, further research is needed to determine whether this directly affects malesterility.[98] A later 2010 study of 29 males published inFertility and Sterility found that men who kept their laptops on their laps experienced scrotal hyperthermia (overheating) in which their scrotal temperatures increased by up to 2.0 °C (4 °F). The resulting heat increase, which could not be offset by a laptop cushion, may increase male infertility.[99][100][101][102][103]Laptop cooler (silver) under laptop (white), preventing heating of lap and improving laptop airflow A common practical solution to this problem is to place the laptop on a table or desk or to use a book or pillow between the body and the laptop.[citation needed] Another solution is to obtain a cooling unit for the laptop. These are usually USB powered and consist of a hard thin plastic case housing one, two, or three cooling fans – with the entire assembly designed to sit under the laptop in question – which results in the laptop remaining cool to the touch, and greatly reduces laptop heat buildup.
There are many laptop brands and manufacturers. Several major brands that offer notebooks in various classes are listed in the adjacent box. The major brands usually offer good service and support, including well-executed documentation and driver downloads that remain available for many years after a particular laptop model is no longer produced. Capitalizing on service, support, and brand image, laptops from major brands are more expensive than laptops from smaller brands andODMs. Some brands specialize in a particular class of laptops, such as gaming laptops (Alienware), high-performance laptops (HP Envy), netbooks (EeePC) and laptops for children (OLPC).
Many brands, including the major ones, do not design and do not manufacture their laptops. Instead, a small number of Original Design Manufacturers (ODMs) design new models of laptops, and the brands choose the models to be included in their lineup. In 2006, 7 major ODMs manufactured 7 of every 10 laptops in the world, with the largest one (Quanta Computer) having 30% of the world market share.[108] Therefore, identical models are available both from a major label and from a low-profile ODM in-house brand.
As of 1989Zenith Data Systems,Toshiba,Compaq, andGrid Systems were the leading vendors of a market thatInfoWorld described as "small but vital".[109] As of 1992–1993, Toshiba ranked as the global leading vendor in the notebook computer market. In the United States meanwhile,Apple led the market followed by Compaq.[110] In the year 1993, global revenue for the laptop market was led by Compaq, followed by Toshiba, Apple,NEC andIBM, altogether accounting for over 53% of global revenue.[111]
In the United States, the top three vendors for notebooks in market share as of 1996 were: Toshiba, followed by Compaq, and followed by IBM.[112]
As of 1999, Toshiba ranked first in worldwide laptop sales followed by IBM, Compaq, and Dell.[113] Toshiba led the market with a share of 18.6%.[114]
In the first quarter of 2002 in the United States market, Dell controlled 25.2% in the notebook space, well ahead of Toshiba (13.6%) and Compaq (11.7%), the latter of which had been acquired byHewlett-Packard (HP). At fourth and fifth place wereSony and IBM.[115]
In the year 2005 according toIDC, Dell was the top global vendor of notebooks with a market share of 17.29%, followed by: HP (15.7%), Toshiba (10.96%), Acer (10.15%) andLenovo (8.23%); Lenovo had acquired IBM that same year. The remaining of the top ten was made up ofFujitsu Siemens, Sony,NEC, Apple andAsus.[118]
In the first quarter of 2010, the largest vendor of portable computers, includingnetbooks, was either HP or Acer, depending on data source. Both had shipped approximately 9 million units each. Dell, Toshiba, Asus and Lenovo followed, each with approximate sales of 5 to 6 million each. Apple,Samsung and Sony sold under 2 million each.[119]
As of the third quarter of 2020,HP was cited as the leading vendor for notebook computers closely followed by Lenovo, both with a share of 23.6% each. They were followed by Dell (13.7%), Apple (9.7%) and Acer (7.9%).[120]
Adoption by users
Battery-powered portable computers had just 2% worldwide market share in 1986.[121] However, laptops have become increasingly popular, both for business and personal use.[122] The third quarter of 2008 was the first time when worldwide notebook PC shipments exceededdesktops, with 38.6 million units versus 38.5 million units.[122][123][124][125] In 2023, it was estimated that 166 million laptops were sold,[126] and in the first quarter of 2024, around 64% of personal computers sold were laptops or detachable tablets.[127] Due to the advent of tablets and affordable laptops, many computer users now have laptops due to the convenience offered by the device.
Price
Before 2008, laptops were very expensive. In May 2005, the average notebook sold for$1,131 while desktops sold for an average of$696.[128] Around 2008, however, prices of laptops decreased substantially due to low-costnetbooks, drawing an averageUS$689 at U.S. retail stores in August 2008. Starting with the 2010s, laptops have decreased substantially in price at the low end due to inexpensive and low powerArm processors, less demanding operating systems such asChromeOS, andSoC's. As of 2023[update], a new laptop can be obtained for$299.[129]
The list of materials that go into a laptop computer is long, and many of the substances used, such asberyllium,lead,chromium, andmercury compounds, aretoxic orcarcinogenic to humans. Although these toxins are relatively harmless when the laptop is in use, concerns that discarded laptops cause a serious health and environmental risks when improperly discarded have arisen. The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive) in Europe specified that all laptop computers must be recycled by law. Similarly, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has outlawedlandfill dumping or the incinerating of discarded laptop computers.
Most laptop computers begin the recycling process with a method known asDemanufacturing, which involves the physical separation of the components of the laptop.[130] These components are then either grouped into materials (e.g. plastic, metal and glass) for recycling or more complex items that require more advanced materials separation (e.g.) circuit boards, hard drives and batteries.
Corporate laptop recycling can require an additional process known as data destruction. The data destruction process ensures that all information or data that has been stored on a laptop hard drive can never be retrieved again. Below is an overview of some of the data protection and environmental laws and regulations applicable for laptop recycling data destruction:
The ruggedizedGrid Compass computer was used since the early days of the Space Shuttle program. The firstcommercial laptop used in space was aMacintosh portable in 1990 on Space Shuttle missionSTS-41 and again in 1991 aboardSTS-43.[133][134][135][136] Apple and other laptop computers continue to be flown aboard crewed spaceflights, though the only long-duration flight certified computer for the International Space Station is theThinkPad.[137] As of 2011, over 100 ThinkPads were aboard the ISS. Laptops used aboard the International Space Station and other spaceflights are generally the same ones thatcan be purchased by the general public but needed modifications are made to allow them to be used safely and effectively in a weightless environment such as updating the cooling systems to function without relying on hot air rising and accommodation for the lower cabin air pressure.[138] Laptops operating in harsh usage environments and conditions, such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, and wet or dusty conditions differ from those used in space in that they arecustom designed for the task and do not usecommercial off-the-shelf hardware.
^Also known aslaptop computer, notebook computer, notebook, orportable computer. There are also names for specific types of laptops, such asultrabook ornetbook. Seelaptop terminology.
^Also called ultrabook and historically known as subnotebook or notebook computer
^Alan C. Kay (August 1972).A Personal Computer for Children of All Ages(PDF). Proceedings of the ACM National Conference. Boston: Xerox Palo Alto Research Center. Retrieved17 October 2008.
^Dé specialist voor smartphone, tablet en laptop reparaties (4 January 2013)."Laptop reparatie".Smartrepair Den Bosch, Nijmegen, Tilburg, Almere en Utrecht (in Dutch). smart-repair.nl. Retrieved30 March 2017.
^ab"The Falling Costs of Mobile Computing".Falling Costs of Mobile Computing Drive Corporate Adoption. Computer Economics, Inc. December 2005. Archived fromthe original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved1 November 2008.
^Linzmayer, Owen W. (2004).Apple confidential 2.0 : the definitive history of the world's most colorful company ([Rev. 2. ed.]. ed.). San Francisco, Calif.: No Starch Press.ISBN1-59327-010-0.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.JPG)
.jpg)
.jpg)
