Laozi (/ˈlaʊdzə/), also romanized asLao Tzuamong other ways, was a semi-legendaryChinese philosopher and author of theTao Te Ching (Laozi), one of the foundational texts ofTaoism alongside theZhuangzi. The name, literally meaning 'Old Master', was likely intended to portray an archaic anonymity that could converse withConfucianism. Modern scholarship generally regards his biographical details as later inventions, and his opus a collaboration. Traditional accounts addend him asLi Er, born in the 6th-centuryBCstate of Chu during China'sSpring and Autumn period (c. 770 – c. 481 BC). Serving as the royalarchivist for theZhou court atWangcheng (modernLuoyang), he met and impressedConfucius (c. 551 – c. 479 BC) on one occasion, composing theTao Te Ching in a single session before retiring into the western wilderness.
A central figure inChinese culture, Laozi is generally considered the founder of Taoism. He was claimed andrevered as the ancestor of theTang dynasty (618–907) and is similarly honored in modern China as the progenitor of the popularsurname Li. In some sects of Taoism,Chinese Buddhism, Confucianism, andChinese folk religion, it is held that he then became animmortal hermit.[2] Certain Taoist devotees held that theTao Te Ching was the avatar – embodied as a book – of the godLaojun, one of theThree Pure Ones of the Taoist pantheon, though few philosophers believe this.[3]
TheTao Te Ching had a profound influence onChinese religious movements and on subsequent Chinese philosophers, who annotated, commended, and criticized the texts extensively. In the 20th century,textual criticism by historians led to theories questioning Laozi's timing or even existence, positing that the received text of theTao Te Ching was not composed until theWarring States period (c. 475 – 221 BC), and was the product of multiple authors.
Laozi (/ˈlaʊdzə/) is the modern pinyinromanization of老子. It is not a personal name, but rather anhonorific title, meaning 'old' or 'venerable'. Its structure matches that of other ancient Chinese philosophers, such asKongzi,Mengzi, andZhuangzi.[4]
Traditional accounts give Laozi the personal nameLi Er (李耳,Lǐ Ěr), whoseOld Chinese pronunciationhas been reconstructed as*C.rəʔ C.nəʔ.[1]Li is a commonChinese surname which also has the meaning 'plum' or 'plum tree' when used as a common noun; there is a legend tying Laozi's birth to a plum tree.[5] Laozi has long been identified with the personaLao Dan (老聃,Lǎo Dān).[6][7][8]Dan similarly means "Long-Ear" or "the Long-Eared One". The character耳 is the Chinese word for 'ear'.[9]
Laozi is recorded bearing thecourtesy nameBoyang (伯陽,Bóyáng), whose Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as*pˤrak laŋ.[1] The character伯 was the title of the eldest son born to the primary wife, or an uncle of the father's family who was older than one's father, also used as anoble title indicating an aristocratic lineage head with rulership over a small to medium domain, and as a general mark of respect. The character陽 isyang, the solar and masculine life force in Taoist belief. Lao Dan seems to have been used more generally, however, including bySima Qian in hisShiji (c. 91 BC),[10] in theZhuangzi,[10] and by some modern scholars.[11]
By the mid-twentieth century, consensus had emerged among Western scholars that thehistoricity of a person known as Laozi is doubtful and that theTao Te Ching is "a compilation of Taoist sayings by many hands",[12][13] with an author being invented afterwards.[14] While multiple authorship over time is typical for early Chinese texts,[15] the book's conspicuous absence of a central Master figure place it in marked contrast with nearly all other early Chinese philosophical works.[16]
As of 2024[update], the oldest manuscript containing text from theTao Te Ching dates to the late 4th century BC, written onbamboo slips excavated as part of theGuodian Chu Slips. These passages correspond with roughly one third of the received text,[17] and some are placed in the same order. These are mixed in with passages not carried by the transmittedTao Te Ching, indicating that its makeup was still undergoing revisions and modifications.[18] The oldest manuscripts of theTao Te Ching in a complete form by itself were discovered at a tomb inMawangdui, and date to the early 2nd century BC.[19] Analysis of early commentary on passages that appear in the receivedTao Te Ching supports an accretionary evolution for the text rather than a singular authorship event.[20]
The earliest biographical reference to Laozi is found in the 1st‑century BCRecords of the Grand Historian bySima Qian. Multiple accounts of Laozi's biography are presented, with Sima Qian expressing various levels of doubt in his sources.[21]
In one account, Sima Qian reports that Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius during the 6th or 5th centuryBC. His personal name was Er or Dan. He was born in the village of Quren (曲仁里,Qūrén lǐ) in the southernstate of Chu,[22] within present-dayLuyi inHenan.[23] He was said to be the son of the Censor-in-Chief of theZhou dynasty and Lady Yishou (益壽氏), and was a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal Zhou court. This reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of theYellow Emperor and other classics of the time, and he wrote a book in two parts before departing to the west.
In another, Laozi was a different contemporary of Confucius calledLao Laizi [zh] (老莱子), one ofthe Twenty-four Filial Exemplars, and wrote a book in 15 parts. The story tells of Zong the Warrior who defeats an enemy and triumphs, and then abandons the corpses of the enemy soldiers to be eaten by vultures. By coincidence Laozi, traveling and teaching the way of the Tao, comes on the scene and is revealed to be the father of Zong, from whom he was separated in childhood. Laozi tells his son that it is better to treat respectfully a beaten enemy, and that the disrespect to their dead would cause his foes to seek revenge. Convinced, Zong orders his soldiers to bury the enemy dead. Funeral mourning is held for the dead of both parties and a lasting peace is made.
In a third, he was the court astrologer Lao Dan who lived during the 4th centuryBC reign of theDuke Xian of Qin[24][25] who grew weary of the moral decay of life inChengzhou and noted the kingdom's decline. He ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at the age of 80. At the western gate of the city (or kingdom), he was recognized by the guardYinxi. The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country before he would be permitted to pass. The text Laozi wrote was said to be theTao Te Ching, although the present version of the text includes additions from later periods. In some versions of the tale, the sentry was so touched by the work that he became a disciple and left with Laozi, never to be seen again.[26] In some later interpretations, the "Old Master" journeyed all the way to India and was the teacher of Siddartha Gautama,the Buddha. Others say he was the Buddha himself.[27][28]
The stories assert that Laozi never opened a formal school but nonetheless attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. There are many variations of a story retelling his encounter with Confucius, most famously in theZhuangzi.[27][29]A.C. Graham suggested that the Confucian version of the story presented in theBook of Rites was the original, which was borrowed and re-interpreted by the followers ofZhuang Zhou.[30] His birthday is popularly held to be the 15th day of the second month of theChinese calendar.[31] In accounts where Laozi married, he was said to have had a son who became a celebrated soldier ofWei during theWarring States period.
Carving of Laozi at Ping Sien Si Temple inPerak, Malaysia
TheTao Te Ching is one of the most significant treatises in Chinesecosmogony. It is often called theLaozi, and has always been associated with that name. The identity of the person or people who wrote or compiled the text has been the source of considerable speculation and debate throughout history.[32][33] As with many works of ancientChinese philosophy, ideas are often explained by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm. TheTao Te Ching stands as an exemplar of this literary form.[34] Unlike most works of its genre, the book conspicuously lacks a central "master" character and seldom references historical people or events, giving it an air of timelessness.[35]
TheTao Te Ching describes the Tao as the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Tao. TheTao Te Ching intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Tao.[36] Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point.[37]
Wu wei, literally 'non-action' or 'not acting', is a central concept of theTao Te Ching. The concept ofwu wei is multifaceted, and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment".[38]
This concept is used to explainziran, or harmony with the Tao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source.Tao Te Ching used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see a connection betweenwu wei andesoteric practices, such aszuowang ('sitting in oblivion': emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought) found in theZhuangzi.[37]
Alan Chan provides an example of how Laozi encouraged a change in approach, or return to "nature", rather than action. Technology may bring about a false sense of progress. The answer provided by Laozi is not the rejection of technology, but instead seeking the calm state ofwu wei, free from desires. This relates to many statements by Laozi encouraging rulers to keep their people in "ignorance", or "simple-minded". Some scholars insist this explanation ignores the religious context, and others question it as anapologetic of the philosophical coherence of the text. It would not be unusual political advice if Laozi literally intended to tell rulers to keep their people ignorant. However, some terms in the text, such as "valley spirit" (谷神,gǔshén) and 'soul' (魄,pò), bear a metaphysical context and cannot be easily reconciled with a purely ethical reading of the work.[37]
Potential officials throughout Chinese history drew on the authority of non-Confucian sages, especially Laozi andZhuangzi, to deny serving any ruler at any time. Zhuangzi, the other founder of Taoism, had a great deal of influence on Chineseliterati and culture.[39] Political theorists influenced by Laozi have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained approach to statecraft, either for ethical and pacifist reasons, or for tactical ends. In a different context, variousantiauthoritarian movements have embraced Laozi's teachings on the power of the weak.[40]
The story of Laozi has taken on strong religious overtones since theHan dynasty. AsTaoism took root, Laozi was worshipped as a god. Belief in the revelation of the Tao from the divine Laozi resulted in the formation of theWay of the Celestial Masters, the first organized religious Taoist sect. In later Taoist tradition, Laozi came to be seen as a personification of the Tao. He is said to have undergone numerous "transformations" and taken on guises in various incarnations throughout history to initiate the faithful in the Way. Religious Taoism often holds that the "Old Master" did not disappear after writing theTao Te Ching but rather spent his life traveling and revealing the Tao.[41]
Taoist myths state that Laozi was avirgin birth, conceived when his mother gazed upon a falling star. He supposedly remained in her womb for 62 years before being born while his mother was leaning against a plum tree. Laozi was said to have emerged as a grown man with a full grey beard and long earlobes, both symbols of wisdom and long life.[42] Other myths state that he wasreborn 13 times after his first life during the days ofFuxi. In his last incarnation as Laozi, he lived 990 years and spent his life traveling to reveal the Tao.[41]
Due to his traditional nameLi Er, Laozi has beenvenerated as the ancestor of all subsequentLis, and many clans of the Li family trace their descent to Laozi,[43] including theemperors of theTang dynasty.[44][43][45] This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage (隴西李氏). According to the Simpkinses, while many (if not all) of these lineages are questionable, they provide a testament to Laozi's impact on Chinese culture.[46] Under theTang, Laozi received a series oftemple names of increasing grandeur. In the year 666,Emperor Gaozong named Laozi the "Supremely Mysterious and Primordial Emperor"(太上玄元皇帝,Tàishàng Xuán Yuán Huángdì).[47] In 743,Emperor Xuanzong declared him the "SageAncestor"(聖祖,Shèngzǔ) of the dynasty with the posthumous title of "Mysterious and Primordial Emperor"(玄元皇帝,Xuán Yuán Huángdì). Emperor Xuanzong also elevated Laozi's parents to the ranks of "Innately Supreme Emperor"(先天太上皇,Xiāntiān Tàishàng Huáng) and "Innate Empress"(先天太后,Xiāntiān Tàihòu). In 749, Laozi was further honored as the "Sage Ancestor and Mysterious and Primordial Emperor of the Great Way"(聖祖大道玄元皇帝,Shèngzǔ Dàdào Xuán Yuán Huángdì) and then, in 754, as the "Great Sage Ancestor and Mysterious and Primordial Heavenly Emperor and Great Sovereign of the Golden Palace of the High and Supreme Great Way"(大聖祖高上大道金闕玄元天皇大帝,Dà Shèngzǔ Gāo Shǎng Dàdào Jīnquē Xuán Yuán Tiānhuáng Dàdì).
A seventh-century work, theSandong Zhunang (三洞珠囊; "Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns"), presents Laozi is the perfect Taoist master and a character namedYinxi as the ideal Taoist student. Yinxi follows a formal sequence of preparation, testing, training and attainment.[48]
In theSiddhar tradition ofTamil Nadu, the greatly revered SiddharBhogar, one of the 18 esteemed Siddhars of yore, is believed to be Laozi and is of Chinese origin. His caste, from obscure references is noted to be "Cinatecakkuyavar" or Chinese potter. In his principal book of poetry, theBhogar 7000, he tells of his travels to China to spread his ideas on spirituality, specifically on the topic of sublimating the sexual energies and using said energies to become self-realised, with a spiritually-minded partner.[49][50] HisJeevaSamadhi can be found in the southwestern corridor of theDhandayuthapani Temple,Palani,Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu.[51]
Many contemporary philosophers have seen Laozi as a proponent of limited government.[52] Theright-libertarian economistMurray Rothbard suggested that Laozi was the firstlibertarian,[53] likening Laozi's ideas on government toFriedrich Hayek's theory ofspontaneous order.[54] James A. Dorn agreed, writing that Laozi, like many 18th-century liberals, "argued that minimizing the role of government and letting individuals develop spontaneously would best achieve social and economic harmony."[55] Similarly, theCato Institute'sDavid Boaz includes passages from theTao Te Ching in his 1997 bookThe Libertarian Reader and noted in an article for theEncyclopædia Britannica that Laozi advocated for rulers to "do nothing" because "without law or compulsion, men would dwell in harmony."[56][57] Philosopher Roderick Long argues that libertarian themes in Taoist thought are actually borrowed from earlierConfucian writers.[58]
Theanarcho-syndicalist writer and activistRudolf Rocker praised Laozi's "gentle wisdom" and understanding of the opposition between political power and the cultural activities of the people and community in his 1937 bookNationalism and Culture.[59] In his 1910 article for theEncyclopædia Britannica,Peter Kropotkin also noted that Laozi was among the earliest proponents of essentiallyanarchist concepts.[60] More recently, anarchists such as John P. Clark andUrsula K. Le Guin have written about the conjunction between anarchism and Taoism in various ways, highlighting the teachings of Laozi in particular.[61] In her rendition of the Tao Te Ching, Le Guin writes that Laozi "does not see political power as magic. He sees rightful power as earned and wrongful power as usurped... He sees sacrifice of self or others as a corruption of power, and power as available to anyone who follows the Way. No wonder anarchists and Taoists make good friends."[62]
^Chan, Alan (2018) [2001],"Laozi", in Edward N. Zalta; Uri Nodelman; et al. (eds.),Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University Department of Philosophy,The discovery of twoLaozi silk manuscripts at Mawangdui, near Changsha, Hunan province in 1973 marks an important milestone in modernLaozi research. The manuscripts, identified simply as 'A' (jia) and 'B' (yi), were found in a tomb that was sealed in 168 B.C.E. The texts themselves can be dated earlier, the 'A' manuscript being the older of the two, copied in all likelihood before 195 B.C.E." [...] "Until about two decades ago, the Mawangdui manuscripts have held the pride of place as the oldest extant manuscripts of theLaozi. In late 1993, the excavation of a tomb (identified as M1) in Guodian, Jingmen city,Hubei, has yielded among other things some 800bamboo slips, of which 730 are inscribed, containing over 13,000 Chinese characters. Some of these, amounting to about 2,000 characters, match theLaozi. The tomb...is dated around 300 B.C.E.
^Queen, Sarah A. (2013), "Han Feizi and the Old Master: A Comparative Analysis and Translation ofHan Feizi Chapter 20, "Jie Lao," and Chapter 21, "Yu Lao"", in Paul R. Goldin (ed.),Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei, Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy, Springer, pp. 197–256,doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2_10,ISBN978-94-007-4317-5
^Schaberg, David (2015), "On the Range and Performance ofLaozi-Style Tetrasyllables", in Joachim Gentz; Dirk Meyer (eds.),Literary Forms of Argument in Early China, Sinica Leidensia, vol. 123, Brill, pp. 87–111,ISBN978-90-04-29970-2
^Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1934),The Chinese: their history and culture, Volume 1 (2 ed.), Macmillan, p. 191, retrieved8 February 2012,T'ai Tsung's family professed descent from Lao Tzu (for the latter's reputed patronymic was likewise Li)
^Rothbard, Murray (2005). Excerpt from "Concepts of the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire",The Journal of Libertarian Studies, Vol. IX, No. 2 (Fall 1990) atmises.org
^Rothbard, Murray (2005). "The Ancient Chinese Libertarian Tradition",Mises Daily, (5 December 2005) (original source unknown) atmises.org
^Boaz, David (30 January 2009),"Libertarianism",Encyclopædia Britannica,archived from the original on 4 May 2015, retrieved21 February 2017,An appreciation for spontaneous order can be found in the writings of the ancient Chinese philosopher Lao-tzu (6th century bce), who urged rulers to "do nothing" because "without law or compulsion, men would dwell in harmony."
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