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Some 130 to 195 languages are spoken in thePhilippines, depending on the method of classification.[3][4][5][6] Almost all areMalayo-Polynesian languages native to the archipelago. A number of Spanish-influencedcreole varieties generally calledChavacano along with some local varieties of Chinese[7][8][9] are also spoken in certain communities.Tagalog andCebuano are the most commonly spoken native languages. The 1987 constitution designatesFilipino, a standardized version of Tagalog, as thenational language and anofficial language along withEnglish. Filipino is regulated byCommission on the Filipino Language and serves as alingua franca used byFilipinos of various ethnolinguistic backgrounds.[10]
Republic Act 11106 declaresFilipino Sign Language or FSL as the country's officialsign language and as the Philippine government's official language in communicating with the Filipino Deaf.[11]
While Filipino is used for communication across the country's diverse linguistic groups and inpopular culture, the government operates mostly using English. Including second-language speakers, there are more speakers of Filipino than English in the Philippines.[12] The other regional languages are given official auxiliary status in their respective places according to the constitution but particular languages are not specified.[13] Some of these regional languages are also used in education.[2]
The indigenous scripts of the Philippines (such as theKulitan,Tagbanwa and others) are used very little; instead, Philippine languages are today written in theLatin script because of theSpanish andAmerican colonial experience.Baybayin, though generally not understood, is one of the most well-known of the Philippine indigenous scripts and is used mainly in artistic applications such as on currentPhilippine banknotes, where the word "Pilipino" is inscribed using the writing system. Additionally, theArabic script is used in theMuslim areas in the southern Philippines.
Spanish was the official language of the country for more than three centuries under Spanish colonial rule, and became thelingua franca of the Philippines in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1863, a Spanish decree introduceduniversal education, creating free public schooling inSpanish.[14] It was also the language of thePhilippine Revolution, and the 1899Malolos Constitution effectively proclaimed it as the official language of theFirst Philippine Republic.[15] National heroJosé Rizal wrote most of his works in Spanish. Following the American occupation of the Philippines and the imposition of English, the use of Spanish declined gradually. Spanish then declined rapidly because of the Japanese occupation in the 1940s.[16]
Under the U.S. occupation and civil regime,English began to be taught in schools. By 1901, public education used English as the medium of instruction. Around 600 educators (called "Thomasites") who arrived in that year aboard theUSATThomas replaced the soldiers who also functioned as teachers. The1935 Constitution added English as an official language alongside Spanish. A provision in this constitution also called for Congress to "take steps toward the development and adoption of a common national language based on one of the existing native languages." On November 12, 1937, the First National Assembly created the National Language Institute. PresidentManuel L. Quezon appointed nativeWaray speakerJaime C. De Veyra to chair a committee of speakers of otherregional languages. Their aim was to select a national language among the otherregional languages. Ultimately,Tagalog was chosen as the base language on December 30, 1937, on the basis that it was the most widely spoken and developed local language.[17] Quezon himself was born and raised inBaler, Aurora, which is a native Tagalog-speaking area.
In 1939,PresidentManuel L. Quezon renamed theTagalog language asWikang Pambansa ("national language" in English translation).[18] The language was further renamed in 1959 asPilipino by Secretary of EducationJosé E. Romero. The1973 constitution declared the Pilipino language to be co-official, along with English, and mandated the development of anational language, to be known asFilipino. In addition, Spanish regained its official status when PresidentFerdinand Marcos signed Presidential Decree No. 155, s. 1973.[19]
The1987 Constitution under PresidentCorazon Aquino declaredFilipino to be the national language of the country. Filipino andEnglish were named as the country's official languages, with the recognition of regional languages as having official auxiliary status in their respective regions (though not specifying any particular languages).Spanish andArabic were to be promoted on an optional and voluntary basis.[20] Filipino also had the distinction of being a national language that was to be "developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages." Although not explicitly stated in the constitution, Filipino is in practice almost completely composed of the Tagalog language as spoken in the capital, Manila; however, organizations such as theUniversity of the Philippines began publishing dictionaries such as theUP Diksyonaryong Filipino in which words from various Philippine languages were also included. The present constitution is also the first to give recognition to other regional languages.
Republic Act No. 7104, approved on August 14, 1991, by President Corazon Aquino, created the Commission on theFilipino Language, reporting directly to the President and tasked to undertake, coordinate and promote research for the development, propagation and preservation of Filipino and otherPhilippine languages.[21] On May 13, 1992, the commission issued Resolution 92–1, specifying that Filipino is the
...indigenous written and spoken language ofMetro Manila andother urban centers in the Philippines used as thelanguage of communication ofethnic groups.[22]
In 2013, PresidentNoynoy Aquino's government launched the country'smother tongue-based multi-lingual education program for students in kindergarten to Grade 3, effectively reviving the usage and proliferation of various indigenous languages in the country.[23] The program also strengthened the Filipino language and English language learning capabilities of students.[24] In 2018, PresidentRodrigo Duterte signed Republic Act 11106, declaring Filipino Sign Language (FSL) as the country's official language for the Filipino deaf community.[25]
Filipino is a standardized version ofTagalog, spoken mainly in Metro Manila.[26] Both Filipino and English are used in government, education, print, broadcast media, and business, with third local languages often being used at the same time.[27] Filipino has borrowings from, among other languages, Spanish,[28] English,[29] Arabic,[30] Persian, Sanskrit,[31] Malay,[32] Chinese,[33][34] Japanese,[35] andNahuatl.[36] Filipino is an official language of education, but less important than English as a language of publication (except in some domains, likecomic books) and less important for academic-scientific-technological discourse. Filipino is used as alingua franca in all regions of the Philippines as well as withinoverseas Filipino communities, and is the dominant language of thearmed forces (except perhaps for the small part of the commissionedofficer corps from wealthy or upper-middle-class families) and of a large part of thecivil service, most of whom are non-Tagalogs.
There are different forms ofdiglossia that exist in the case ofregional languages. Locals may use their mother tongue or the regionallingua franca to communicate amongst themselves, but sometimes switch to foreign languages when addressing outsiders. Another is the prevalence ofcode-switching to English when speaking in both their first language and Tagalog.
TheConstitution of the Philippines provides for the use of the vernacular languages as officialauxiliary languages in provinces where Filipino is not thelingua franca. Filipinos by and large arepolyglots; in the case where the vernacular language is a regional language, Filipinos would speak in Filipino when speaking in formal situations while theregional languages are spoken in non-formal settings. This is evident in major urban areas outside Metro Manila likeCamarines Norte in theBikol-speaking area, andDavao in theCebuano-speaking area. As of 2017[update], the case of Ilocano and Cebuano are becoming more of bilingualism than diglossia due to the publication of materials written in these languages.[citation needed]The diglossia is more evident in the case of other languages such asPangasinan,Kapampangan,Bikol,Waray,Hiligaynon,Sambal, andMaranao, where the written variant of the language is becoming less and less popular to give way to the use of Filipino. Although Philippine laws consider some of these languages as "major languages" there is little, if any, support coming from the government to preserve these languages. This may be bound to change, however, given current policy trends.[37]
There still exists another type of diglossia, which is between the regional languages and the minority languages. Here, we label the regional languages asacrolects while the minority languages as thebasilect. In this case, the minority language is spoken only in very intimate circles, like the family or the tribe one belongs to. Outside this circle, one would speak in the prevalent regional language, while maintaining an adequate command of Filipino for formal situations. Unlike the case of the regional languages, these minority languages are always in danger of becoming extinct because of speakers favoring the more prevalent regional language. Moreover, most of the users of these languages are illiterate[specify] and as expected, there is a chance that these languages will no longer be revived due to lack of written records.[citation needed]
In addition to Filipino and English, other languages have been proposed as additional nationwide languages. Among the most prominent proposals areSpanish[38][39] andJapanese.[40][41]
According toEthnologue, a total of 182 native languages are spoken in the nation and four languages have been classified as extinct: Dicamay Agta, Katabaga,Tayabas Ayta and Villaviciosa Agta.[42] Except forArabic,English,Spanish,Chavacano andvarieties of Chinese (Hokkien,Cantonese andMandarin), all of the languages belong to theMalayo-Polynesian branch of theAustronesian language family.
The following are the four Philippine languages with more than five million native speakers:[43]
In addition, there are seven with between one and five million native speakers:
One or more of these is spoken natively by more than 90% of the population.
APhilippine language sub-family identified byRobert Blust includes languages of northSulawesi and theYami language ofTaiwan, but excludes theSama–Bajaw languages of theTawi-Tawi islands, as well as a couple ofNorth Bornean languages spoken in southernPalawan.
Eskayan is an artificial auxiliary language created as the embodiment of aBohol nation in the aftermath of thePhilippine–American War. It is used by about 500 people.
A theory that the Brahmic scripts of Sumatra, Sulawesi and the Philippines are descended from an early form of theGujarati script was presented at the 2010 meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society.[44]
Philippine languages are often referred to by Filipinos asdialects, partly as a relic of the inaccurate vocabulary used in literature during the American period (1898–1946).[18] While there are indeed many hundreds of dialects in the Philippines, they represent variations of no fewer than 120 distinct languages, and many of these languages maintain greater differences than those between established European languages like French and Spanish.
The vast differences between the languages can be seen in the following translations of what has been asserted to be the Philippine national proverb:[45]
| Language | Translation |
|---|---|
| English | A person who does not look back at where they came from will not get to their destination. |
| Philippine Hokkien (Lán-nâng-ōe) | Hit-gé lâng ná kiâⁿ ná bô khòaⁿ kāi-kī ǎu-piah tùi só͘-chǎi tǐ lō͘, ě bô thang kàu lō͘.「彼个人那行那無看家己後壁對所在佇路，會無通到路。」 |
| Malay | Seseorang yang tidak melihat kembali akan asal-usulnya tidak akan mungkin mencapai tujuannya. |
| Aklanon | Ro uwa' gatan-aw sa anang ginhalinan hay indî makaabut sa anang ginapaeangpan. |
| Asi (Bantoanon) | Kag tawong waya giruromroma it ida ginghalinan, indi makaabot sa ida apagtuan. |
| Bolinao | Si'ya a kai tanda' nin lumingap sa pangibwatan na, kai ya mirate' sa keen na. |
| Bontoc (Ifuntok) | Nan Adi mang ustsong sinan narpuwan na, adi untsan isnan umayan na. |
| Botolan | Hay ahe nin nanlek ha pinag-ibatan, ay ahe makarateng ha lalakwen. |
| Butuanon | Ang diiʼ mangyát molingiʼ hong kagikanan kay diiʼ makaʼabót ngadto paiyanan. |
| West Miraya Bikol (Ligao) | Kan idî tatao magkiling sa inalian, idî makaabot sa papaidtuhan. |
| Buhinon Bikol (Buhi) | Yu di nikiling sa pinagalinan, dì makaantos sa pupuntahan. |
| Central Bikol (Canaman) | An dai tataong magsalingoy sa saiyang ginikanan, dai makakaabot sa padudumanan. |
| Gubatnon Bikol (Gubat) | An diri maaram mag-imud sa pinaghalian, diri makaabot sa pakakadtu-an. |
| East Miraya Bikol (Daraga) | Su indî tataw makarumdom nung ginitan, indî makaabot sa adunan. |
| East Miraya Bikol (Guinobatan) | Su indî tataw makarəmdəm nū ginítan, indi' makābot sa ādunan. |
| West Miraya Bikol (Oas) | Kan na taw na idî tataw maglinguy sa sanyang inalian, idi man maka abot sa sanyang paidtunan. |
| Rinconada Bikol (Iriga) | A dirī tattaoŋ maglīlî sa pinaŋgalinan, dirī makaaābot sa pig-iyānan. |
| Capiznon | Ang indî kabalo magbalikid sa iyá ginhalinan, indî makalab-ot sa iyá palakadtuan. |
| Cebuano Bohol (Binol-anon) | Sijá nga dì kahibawng molíngì sa ijáng gigikanan, dî gajúd makaabót sa ijáng padulngan. |
| Cebuano(Metro Cebu Variety) | Ang dì kahibáw molingis' iyáng gigikanan, dì gyud makaabots' iyáng padulngan. |
| Cebuano(Sialo-Carcar Standard) | Ang dilì kahibaló molingì sa iyahang gigikanan, dilì gayúd makaabót sa iyahang padulngan. |
| Chavacano Caviteño | Quien no ta bira cara na su origen no de incarsa na su destinación. |
| Chavacano Ternateño | Ay nung sabi mira i donde ya bini no di llega na destinación. |
| Chavacano Zamboangueño | El Quien no sabe vira el cara na su origen, nunca llega na su destinación. |
| Cuyonon | Ang ara agabalikid sa anang ing-alinan, indi enged maka-abot sa anang papakonan. |
| Ibanag | I tolay nga ari mallipay ta naggafuananna, ari makadde ta angayanna. |
| Iloco(Ilocano) | Ti tao nga haánna ammó tumaliáw iti naggapuánna ket haán nga makadánon iti papananná. |
| Itawis | Ya tolay nga mari mallipay tsa naggafuananna, mari makakandet tsa angayanna. |
| Hiligaynon (Ilonggo) | Ang indi kabalo magbalikid sang iya nga ginhalinan, indi makaabot sa iya nga pakadtuan. |
| Jama Mapun | Soysoy niya' pandoy ngantele' patulakan ne, niya' ta'abut katakkahan ne. |
| Kapampangan | Ing e byasang malikid king kayang penibatan, e ya miras king kayang pupuntalan. |
| Kabalian | Sija nga dili kahibayu mulingi sa ija gigikanan, dili makaabut sa ija pasingdan/paduyungan. |
| Kinaray-a | Ang indî kamaán magbalikid sa ana ginhalinan, indî makaabót sa ana paaragtunan. |
| Manobo (Obo) | Iddos minuvu no konnod kotuig nod loingoy to id pomonan din, konna mandad od poko-uma riyon tod undiyonnan din. |
| Maranao | So tao a di matao domingil ko poonan iyan na di niyan kakowa so singanin iyan. |
| Masbateño | An dilì maaram maglingì sa ginhalian, kay dilì makaabot sa kakadtuhan. |
| Pangasinan | Say toon agga onlingao ed pinanlapuan to, agga makasabi'd laen to. |
| Romblomanon (Ini) | Ang tawo nga bukon tigo mag lingig sa iya guinghalinan hay indi makasampot sa iya ning pagakadtoan. |
| Sambali | Hay kay tanda mamanomtom ha pinangibatan, kay immabot sa kakaon. |
| Sangil | Tao mata taya mabiling su pubuakengnge taya dumanta su kadam tangi. |
| Sinama | Ya Aa ga-i tau pa beleng ni awwal na, ga-i du sab makasong ni maksud na. |
| Surigaonon | Adtón dilì mahibayó molingì sa ija ing-gikanan, dilì gajód makaabót sa ija pasingdan. |
| Sorsoganon | An dirì mag-imud sa pinaghalian dirì makaabot sa kakadtuan. |
| Tagalog (Tayabas) | Ang hindi maalam lumingon sa pinaroonan ay hindi makakarating sa paroroonan. |
| Tagalog (Manila) | Ang hindi marunong lumingon sa pinanggalingan ay hindi makararating (makakarating) sa paroroonan. |
| Tausug | In di' maingat lumingi' pa bakas liyabayan niya, di' makasampay pa kadtuun niya. |
| Waray (Leyte) | An diri maaram lumingi ha tinikangan, diri maulpot ha kakadtoan. |
| Waray (Northern Samar) | An diri maaram lumingi sa tinikangan, diri maabot sa kakadtuan. |
| Yakan | Mang gey matau mamayam si bakas palaihan nen, gey tekka si papilihan nen. |
The amount of dialectal variation varies from language to language. Languages like Tagalog, Kapampangan and Pangasinan are known to have very moderate dialectal variation.
For the languages of theBicol Region, however, there is great dialectal variation. There are cities and towns which have their own dialects and varieties. Below is the sentence "Were you there at the market for a long time?" translated into certain varieties of Bikol. The translation is followed by dialect and correspondinglanguage, and a city/town in Bicol where they are spoken. The final translation is in Tagalog.
Below is a chart of Philippine languages. While there have been disagreements on which should be classified as alanguage and which should be classified as adialect, the chart shows that most have similarities, yet are not mutually comprehensible. These languages are arranged according to the regions where they are natively spoken (from north to south, then east to west).
| English | one | two | three | four | person | house | dog | coconut | day | new | we (inclusive) | what | and |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ivatan | asa | dadowa | tatdo | apat | tao | vahay | chito | niyoy | araw | va-yo | yaten | ango | kan |
| Ilokano | maysa | dua | tallo | uppat | tao | balay | aso | niog | aldaw | baro | datayo | ania | ken |
| Ifuntok | əsang | tswa | Tulo | əpat | tacu | Afong | aso | inyog | acəw | falu | tsattaku | ngag | ya |
| Ibanag | tadday | dua | tallu | appa' | tolay | balay | kitu | inniuk | aggaw | bagu | sittam | anni | anne |
| Gaddang | tata | addwa | tallo | appat | tolay | balay | atu | ayog | aw | bawu | ikkanetem | sanenay | e |
| Pangasinan | sakey | duara | talora | apatira | too | abong | aso | niyog | agew | balo | sikatayo | anto | tan/et |
| Kapampangan | métung | adwá | atlú | ápat | taú | bale | ásu | ngungút | aldó | bayu | ikátamú | nanú | ampong/at |
| Sambal | saya | rwa | tolo | àpat | tawu | balè | aso | ungut | awro | bâ-yo | udèng | ani | tan |
| Tagalog | isá | dalawá | tatló | apat | tao | bahay | aso | niyóg | araw | bago | tayo / kamí (exclusive) | anó | at |
| Coastal Bikol | saro | duwa | tulo | apat | tawo | harong | ido | niyog | aldaw | ba-go | kita | ano | asin, buda |
| Rinconada Bikol | əsad | darwā | tolō | əpat | tawō | baləy | ayam | noyog | aldəw | bāgo | kitā | onō | ag, sagkəd, sakâ |
| West Miraya Bikol | sad | duwa | tulo | upat | taw | balõy | ayam | nuyog | aldõw | bâgo | kita, sato | uno | dangan, mî, saka |
| East Miraya Bikol | usad | duw | tulo | upat | taw | balay | ayam | nuyog | aldaw | bâgo | kita, satun, kami | uno | dangan, mî, saka, kina |
| Masbateño | usád | duhá | tuló | upát | tawo | baláy | idô | buko, lubí | aldaw | bag-o | kita, kamí, amon | nano | kag |
| Romblomanon | isá | duhá | tuyó | upát | tawo | bayay | ayam | niyóg | adlaw | bag-o | kitá, aton | ano | kag |
| Bantoanon | usa | ruha | tuyo | upat | tawo | bayay | iro | nidog | adlaw | bag-o | kita, ato | ni-o | ag |
| Onhan | isya | darwa | tatlo | apat | tawo | balay | ayam | niyog | adlaw | bag-o | kita, taton | ano | ag |
| Kinaray-a | sara | darwa | tatlo | apat | taho | balay | ayam | niyog | adlaw | bag-o | kita, taten | ano, iwan | kag |
| Hiligaynon | isá | duhá | tatló | apat | tawo | baláy | idô | lubí | adlaw | bag-o | kitá | anó | kag |
| Cebuano | usá | duhá | tuló | upát | tawo | baláy | irô | lubí | adlaw | bag-o | kitá | unsa | ug |
| Kabalian | usá | duhá | tuyó | upát | tawo | bayáy | idô | lubí | adlaw | bag-o | kitá | unó | ug |
| Waray | usá | duhá | tuló | upát | tawo | baláy | ayam | lubí | adlaw | bag-o | kitá | ano | ngan, ug |
| Surigaonon | isá | duhá | tuyó | upát | tao | bayáy | idû | niyóg | adlaw | bag-o | kamí | unú | sanan |
| Maguindanao | isa | duwa | telu | pat | taw | walay | aso | niyug | gay | bagu | tanu | ngin | engu |
| T'boli | sotu | lewu | tlu | fat | tau | gunu | ohu | lefo | kdaw | lomi | tekuy | tedu | ne |
| Tausug | hambuuk | duwa | tu | upat | tau | bay | iru' | niyug | adlaw | ba-gu | kitaniyu | unu | iban |
| Chavacano | uno | dos | tres | cuatro | gente | casa | perro | coco | dia | nuevo | Zamboangueño: nosotros/kita; Bahra: mijotros/motros; Caviteño: nisos | cosá/ qué | y/e |
| Spanish | uno | dos | tres | cuatro | persona | casa | perro | coco | día | nuevo | nosotros | que | y/e |
| Philippine Hokkien | it / tsi̍t (一) | dī (二) / nňg (兩) | saⁿ (三) | sì (四) | lâng (儂) | tshù (厝) | káu (狗) | iâ (椰) / iâ-á (椰仔) | di̍t (日) | sin (新) | lán (咱) | siám-mih (啥物) | kap (佮) / ka̍h (交) |
There is a language spoken by theTao people (also known as Yami) ofOrchid Island ofTaiwan which is not included in the language of the Philippines. Their language,Tao (or Yami) is part of theBatanic languages which includesIvatan, Babuyan, and Itbayat of theBatanes.
| English | one | two | three | four | person | house | dog | coconut | day | new | we | what |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tao | ása | dóa (raroa) | tílo (tatlo) | ápat | tao | vahay | gara | ngata | araw | vayo | tata | vela |
| Ivatan | asa | dadowa | tatdo | apat | tao | vahay | chito | niyoy / gata | araw | va-yo | yaten | ango |
Below are the numbers of Filipinos who speak the following 20 languages as their native languages based on the 2020 Census of Population and Housing[43] by thePhilippine Statistics Authority. The number of speakers of each language is calculated from the reported number of households by assuming an average household size of 4.1 persons as of 2020.[46]
| Language | ISO 639–3 | Native speakers |
|---|---|---|
| Tagalog | tl | 43,142,279 |
| Cebuano/Bisaya/Binisaya/Boholano | ceb | 25,584,734 |
| Hiligaynon | hil | 7,927,399 |
| Ilocano | ilo | 7,639,977 |
| Bicolano | bik | 4,237,174 |
| Waray | war | 2,864,855 |
| Kapampangan | pam | 2,622,717 |
| Maguindanao | mdh | 1,496,631 |
| Pangasinan | pag | 1,372,512 |
| Tausug | tsg | 1,129,419 |
| Maranao | mrw | 1,123,851 |
| Karay-a | krj | 601,987 |
| Aklanon/Bukidnon/Binukid-Akeanon | akl, mlz | 545,796 |
| Masbateño | msb | 524,341 |
| Surigaonon | sgd | 466,022 |
| Zamboangueño | cbk | 428,327 |
| Kankanaey | kne | 291,125 |
| Sama/Samal | ssb, sml, sse, slm | 274,602 |
| B'laan/Blaan | bpr, bps | 272,539 |
| Ibanag | ibg | 257,628 |
| Iranon/Iranun/Iraynon | ilp | 230,113 |
Below are the country's top ten languages by the number of households in which they are spoken, according to the Philippine Statistics Authority. There are a total of 26,388,654 households in the country.[43]
| Language | Number of households | % |
|---|---|---|
| Tagalog | 10,522,507 | 39.9 |
| Bisaya/Binisaya | 4,214,122 | 16.0 |
| Hiligaynon/Ilonggo | 1,933,512 | 7.3 |
| Ilocano | 1,863,409 | 7.1 |
| Cebuano | 1,716,080 | 6.5 |
| Bikol | 1,033,457 | 3.9 |
| Waray | 698,745 | 2.6 |
| Kapampangan | 639,687 | 2.4 |
| Maguindanao | 365,032 | 1.4 |
| Pangasinan/Pangasinense | 334,759 | 1.3 |
| Others^ | ~2,950,000 | 11.2 |
^Boholano, Tausug/Bahasa Sug, Maranao, Karay-a/Kinaray-a, Bukidnon/Binukid-Akeanon/Aklanon, Masbateño/ Masbatenon, Surigaonon, and Zamboagueño-Chavacano
Endangered and extinct languages in the Philippines are based on the 3rd world volume released by UNESCO in 2010.
Degree of endangerment (UNESCO standard)
| Language | Speakers (in 2000) | Province | Coordinates | ISO 639–3 code | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vulnerable languages | |||||
| Central Cagayan Agta | 779 | Cagayan | 17°59′21″N121°51′37″E / 17.9891°N 121.8603°E /17.9891; 121.8603 | agt | UNESCO 2000 |
| Dupaninan Agta | 1400 | Cagayan | 17°58′06″N122°02′10″E / 17.9682°N 122.0361°E /17.9682; 122.0361 | duo | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
| Definitely endangered | |||||
| Bataan Agta | 500 | Bataan | 14°25′57″N120°28′44″E / 14.4324°N 120.4788°E /14.4324; 120.4788 | ayt | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
| Mt. Iraya Agta | 150 | Camarines Sur | 13°27′32″N123°32′48″E / 13.459°N 123.5467°E /13.459; 123.5467 | atl | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
| Batak | 200 | Palawan | 10°06′29″N119°00′00″E / 10.1081°N 119°E /10.1081; 119 | bya | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
| Severely endangered | |||||
| Faire Atta | 300 | Ilocos Norte | 18°01′37″N120°29′34″E / 18.027°N 120.4929°E /18.027; 120.4929 | azt | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
| Northern Alta | 200 | Aurora | 15°42′58″N121°24′31″E / 15.7162°N 121.4085°E /15.7162; 121.4085 | agn | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
| Camarines Norte Agta | 150 | Camarines Norte | 14°00′49″N122°53′14″E / 14.0135°N 122.8873°E /14.0135; 122.8873 | abd | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
| Critically endangered | |||||
| Alabat Island Agta | 30 | Quezon | 14°07′15″N122°01′42″E / 14.1209°N 122.0282°E /14.1209; 122.0282 | dul | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
| Isarog Agta | 5 | Camarines Sur | 13°40′50″N123°22′50″E / 13.6805°N 123.3805°E /13.6805; 123.3805 | agk | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
| Southern Ayta (Sorsogon Ayta) | 150 | Sorsogon | 13°01′37″N124°09′18″E / 13.027°N 124.1549°E /13.027; 124.1549 | ays | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
| Extinct | |||||
| Dicamay Agta (Dumagat,Dicamay Dumagat) | 0 | Isabela | 16°41′59″N122°01′00″E / 16.6998°N 122.0167°E /16.6998; 122.0167 | duy | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
| Arta | 0 | near Isabela-Quirino Border | 16°25′21″N121°42′15″E / 16.4225°N 121.7042°E /16.4225; 121.7042 | atz | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
| Katabaga | 0 | Quezon | 13°26′12″N122°33′25″E / 13.4366°N 122.5569°E /13.4366; 122.5569 | ktq | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
| Ata | 0 | Negros Oriental | 9°36′29″N122°54′56″E / 9.6081°N 122.9155°E /9.6081; 122.9155 | atm | David Bradley (UNESCO 2000) |
In a separate study by Thomas N. Headland, the Summer Institute of Linguistics in Dallas, and theUniversity of North Dakota calledThirty Endangered Languages in the Philippines, the Philippines has 32 endangered languages, but 2 of the listed languages in the study are written with 0 speakers, noting that they are extinct or probably extinct. All of the listed languages are Negrito languages, the oldest languages in the Philippines.[47]
| Language | General location of speakers[47] | Population of speakers in the 1990s[47] | Bibliographic source[47] |
|---|---|---|---|
| Batak | Palawan Island | 386 | Elder 1987 |
| Mamanwa | Mindoro Island | 1000 | Grimes 2000 |
| Ati | NorthernPanay Island | 30 | Pennoyer 1987:4 |
| Ati | Southern Panay Island | 900 | Pennoyer 1987:4 |
| Ata | Negros Island | 450 | Cadelina 1980:96 |
| Ata | Mabinay, Negros Oriental | 25 | Grimes 2000 |
| Atta | Pamplona, westernCagayan | 1000 | Grimes 2000 |
| Atta | Faire-Rizal, western Cagayan | 400 | Grimes 2000 |
| Atta | Pudtol,Kalinga-Apayao | 100 | Grimes 2000 |
| Ayta | Sorsogon | 40 | Grimes 2000 |
| Agta (extinct, unverified) | Villaviciosa, Abra | 0 | Grimes 2000; Reid, per. com. 2001 |
| Abenlen | Tarlac | 6000 | K. Storck SIL files |
| Mag-anchi | Zambales Tarlac,Pampanga | 4166 | K. Storck SIL files |
| Mag-indi | Zambales, Pampanga | 3450 | K. Storck SIL files |
| Ambala | Zambales, Pampanga,Bataan | 1654 | K. Storck SIL files |
| Magbeken | Bataan | 381 | K. Storck SIL files |
| Agta | Isarog,Camarines Sur (noted as nearly extinct) | 1000 | Grimes 2000 |
| Agta | Mt. Iraya &Lake Buhi east, Camarines Sur (has 4 close dialects) | 200 | Grimes 2000 |
| Agta | Mt. Iriga & Lake Buhi west, Camarines Sur | 1500 | Grimes 2000 |
| Agta | Camarines Norte | 200 | Grimes 2000 |
| Agta | Alabat Island, southernQuezon | 50 | Grimes 2000 |
| Agta | Umirey, Quezon (with 3 close dialects) | 3000 | T. MacLeod SIL files |
| Agta | Casiguran, northernAurora | 609 | Headland 1989 |
| Agta | Maddela, Quirino | 300 | Headland field notes |
| Agta | Palanan &Divilacan, Isabela | 856 | Rai 1990: 176 |
| Agta | San Mariano-Sisabungan,Isabela | 377 | Rai 1990: 176 |
| Agta (noted as recently extinct) | Dicamay,Jones, Isabela | 0 | Headland field notes, and Grimes 2000 |
| Arta | Aglipay, Quirino | 11 (30 in 1977) | Headland field notes, and Reid 1994:40 |
| Alta | Northern Aurora | 250 | Reid, per. comm. |
| Alta | Northern Quezon | 400 | Reid, per. comm. |
| Agta | eastern Cagayan, Supaninam (several close dialects) | 1200 | T. Nickell 1985:119 |
| Agta | central Cagayan | 800 | Mayfield 1987:vii-viii; Grimes 2000 |
There have been numerous proposals to conserve the many languages of the Philippines. According to theKomisyon sa Wikang Filipino, there are 135 ethnolinguistic groups in the country, each having their own distinct Philippine language.
Among the proposals include (1)"establishing a dictionary & sentence construction manual" for each of the 135 living languages in the country, (2)"video documentation" of all Philippine languages, (3)"revival of the ancient scripts of the Philippines" where each ethnic group's own script shall be revived and used in schools along with the currently-used Roman script in communities where those script/s used to be known, (4)"teaching of ethnic mother languages first" in homes and schools before the teaching of Filipino and foreign languages (English, Spanish and Arabic), and (5)"using the ethnic mother language and script first in public signs" followed by Filipino and foreign languages (English, Spanish and Arabic) and scripts, for example, using Cebuano first followed by Filipino and English underneath the sign.
Currently, only the fourth proposal has been made by the national government of the Philippines.[48] A National Script bill has been filed in Congress in support of the third and fifth proposal, however, the bill only mandates the usage of the ancient script compatible with the national language, which is Filipino.[49]
Arabic is used by someFilipino Muslims in both aliturgical and instructional capacity since the arrival ofIslam and establishment of several Sultanates in the 14th century. Along withMalay, Arabic was thelingua franca of theMalay Archipelago among Muslim traders and the Malayaristocracy.[citation needed]
The1987 Constitution mandates that Arabic (along with Spanish) is to be promoted on an optional and voluntary basis. As of 2015[update] Arabic is taught for free and is promoted in some Islamic centres predominantly in the southernmost parts of Philippines. It is used primarily in religious activities and education (such as in amadrasa or Islamic school) and rarely for official events or daily conversation. In this respect, its function and use is somewhat like the traditional roles ofLatin and Spanish inFilipino Catholicismvis-à-vis other currently spoken languages.
Islamic schools inMindanao teachModern Standard Arabic in their curriculum.[50]
The first significant exposure of Filipinos to theEnglish language occurred in 1762 when theBritish invaded Manila during theSeven Years' War, but this was a brief episode that had no lasting influence. English later became more important and widespread duringAmerican rule between 1898 and 1946, and remains anofficial language of the Philippines.
On August 22, 2007, threeMalolos City regional trial courts inBulacan decided to use Filipino, instead ofEnglish, in order to promote the national language. Twelvestenographers from Branches 6, 80 and 81, as model courts, had undergone training at Marcelo H. del Pilar College of Law ofBulacan State University College of Law following a directive from theSupreme Court of the Philippines. De la Rama said it was the dream of former Chief JusticeReynato Puno to implement the program in other areas such asLaguna,Cavite,Quezón,Nueva Écija,Batangas,Rizal, and Metro Manila.[51]
English is used in official documents of business, government, the legal system, medicine, the sciences and as a medium of instruction. Filipinos prefer textbooks for subjects like calculus, physics, chemistry, biology, etc., written in English rather than Filipino.[dubious –discuss] However, the topics are usually taught, even in colleges, in Tagalog or the local language. By way of contrast, native languages are often heard in colloquial and domestic settings, spoken mostly with family and friends. The use of English attempts to give an air of formality, given its use in school, government and various ceremonies.[citation needed] A percentage of the media such as cable television and newspapers are also in English; major television networks such asABS-CBN andGMA and all AM radio stations broadcast primarily in Filipino, as well as government-run stations likePTV and thePhilippine Broadcasting Service. However, a 2009 article by aUNICEF worker reported that the level of spoken English language in the Philippines was poor. The article reported that aspiring Filipino teachers score the lowest in English out of all of the subjects on their licensing exams.[52]
A large influx of English (American English) words have been assimilated into Tagalog and the other native languages calledTaglish orBislish. There is a debate, however, on whether there is diglossia or bilingualism, between Filipino and English. Filipino is also used both in formal and informal situations. Though the masses would prefer to speak in Filipino, government officials tend to speak in English when performing government functions.[according to whom?] There is still resistance to the use of Filipino in courts and the drafting of national statutes.
In parts of Mindanao, English and Tagalog blend with Cebuano to form "Davao Tagalog".[53]
Diplomatic ties with theMing dynasty among some established states or kingdoms inLuzon and direct interactions and trade overall within the archipelago as a whole may go as far back as the early 10th century during theSong dynasty.Mandarin Chinese is themedium of instruction and subject matter being taught forChinese class inChinese schools in the Philippines. However, theLan-nang-ue variant ofHokkienChinese is the majority household andheritage language of theChinese Filipinos who, for generations, mostly trace roots fromSouthernFujian province inChina. Othervarieties of Chinese such asYue Chinese (especiallyTaishanese orCantonese),Teochew, andHakka are spoken among a minority of Chinese Filipinos whose ancestral roots trace all the way back from theGuangdong orGuangxi provinces ofSouthern China. Most Chinese Filipinos raised in the Philippines, especially those of families of who have lived in the Philippines for multiple generations, are typically able and usually primarily speakPhilippine English,Tagalog or other regionalPhilippine languages (e.g.,Cebuano,Hiligaynon,Ilocano, etc.), or thecode-switching orcode-mixing of these such asTaglish orBislish, butPhilippine Hokkien is typically or occasionally used within Chinese Filipino households privately amongst family or acts a heritage language among descendants of such.Hokaglish is the code-switching equivalent of the above languages.
As with Spanish, many native languages have co-opted numerousloanwords from Chinese, in particular words that refer tocuisine, household objects, andPhilippine kinshipterminology.
The Japanese first came to the Philippines around the 11th century CE, the first country they emigrated to, as well as in waves from the 15th century (as depicted in theBoxer Codex) 17th century, late 19th century, 1900s, 1930s, and the 1940s.[54][55][56][57][58] There is a small Japanese community and a school for Japanese in Metro Manila due to the number of Japanese companies. Also there is a large community of Japanese and Japanese descendants inLaguna province,Baguio, and in theDavao Region.[citation needed] Davao City is a home to a large population of Japanese descendants. Japanese laborers were hired by American companies like the National Fiber Company (NAFCO) in the first decades of the 20th century to work in abaca plantations. Japanese were known for their hard work and industry. During World War II to present, Japanese schools are present in Davao City, such as Philippine Nikkei Jin Kai International School (PNJK IS).
Korean is mainly spoken by the expatriates from South Korea and people born in thePhilippines with Korean ancestry. The Korean language has been added under theDepartment of Education (DepEd) Special Program in Foreign Language (SPFL) curriculum, together with Spanish, French, German, Chinese, and Japanese.[59]
Malay is spoken as a second language by a minority of theTausug,Sama-Bajau, andYakan peoples in the southernmost parts of the Philippines, fromZamboanga down toTawi-Tawi.[citation needed] It is also spoken as a daily language by theIndonesians andMalaysians who have settled, or do business in the Philippines. It is also spoken in southernPalawan to some extent, especially by theMolbog people. It is not spoken among theMaranao andMaguindanao peoples. Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia and the southern Philippines are largely Islamic and the liturgical language of Islam isArabic, but the vast majority of Muslims in the Philippines have little practical knowledge of Arabic beyond limited religious terminology.
TheMalay language, aMalayo-Polynesian language alongside thePhilippine languages, has had an immense influence on many of the languages of the Philippines. This is because Old Malay used to be the lingua franca throughout the archipelago, a good example of this is Magellan's translator Enrique using Malay to converse with the nativeSugbuanon (Cebuano) during this time period.
An example ofOld Malay spoken in Philippine history can be seen in the language of the 10th centuryLaguna Copperplate Inscription.
When the Spanish had first arrived in the Philippines in the 16th century, Old Malay was spoken among thearistocracy.
It is believed thatFerdinand Magellan's slaveEnrique of Malacca could converse with the local leaders inCebu Island, confirming to Magellan his arrival in Southeast Asia.
Today,Indonesian is taught as a foreign language in the Department of Linguistics and Asian Languages in theUniversity of the Philippines. Also, the Indonesian School inDavao City teaches the language to preserve the culture of Indonesian immigrants there. The Indonesian Embassy in Manila also offers occasional classes for Filipinos and foreigners.
Since 2013, the Indonesian Embassy in the Philippines has given basic Indonesian language training to members of theArmed Forces of the Philippines.[60]
In an interview,Department of Education SecretaryArmin Luistro[32] said that the country's government should promoteIndonesian andMalaysian, which are both related to Filipino and other Philippine languages. Thus, the possibility of offering it as an optional subject in public schools is being studied.
Since pre-Spanish times, there have been small Indian communities in the Philippines. Indians tend to be able to speak Tagalog and the other native languages, and are often fluent in English. Among themselves,Sindhi andPunjabi are used.Urdu is spoken among thePakistani community. Only few South Asians, such as Pakistani, as well as the recent newcomers like speakers ofTamil,Nepali andMarathi retain their own respective languages.[55][61][62][63][64][65]
Spanish was introduced in the islands after 1565, when the SpanishconquistadorMiguel López de Legazpi set sail fromMexico and founded the first Spanish settlement onCebú. Though its usage is not as widespread as before, Spanish has had a significant influence in the various local Philippine languages such as providing numerous loan words.[52] Several Spanish-basedcreole language varieties collectively known asChabacano have also emerged. The current 1987 constitution makes mention of Spanish in which it provides that Spanish (along with Arabic) is to be promoted on an optional and voluntary basis.
In 1593, the first printing press in the Philippine islands was founded and it released the first (albeit polyglot) book, theDoctrina Christiana that same year. In the 17th century, Spanish religious orders founded the first universities in the Philippines, some of which are considered the oldest in Asia. During colonial rule throughMexico, Spanish was the language of education, trade, politics, and religion, and by the 19th century, became the colony'slingua franca although it was mainly used by the educated Filipinos.[66] In 1863, a Spanish decree introduced a system of public education, creating free public schooling in Spanish. In the 1890s, the Philippines had a prominent group of Spanish-speaking scholars called theIlustrados, such asJosé Rizal. Some of these scholars participated in thePhilippine Revolution and later in the struggle against American occupation. Both theMalolos Constitution and theLupang Hinirang (national anthem) were written in Spanish.
Under U.S. rule, theEnglish language began to be promoted instead of Spanish. The use of Spanish began to decline as a result of the introduction of English into the public schools as a language of instruction.[14] The 1935 constitution establishing the Philippine Commonwealth designated both English and Spanish as official languages. The 1950 census stated that Filipinos who spoke Spanish as a first or second language made up only 6% of the population. In 1990, the census reported that the number had dwindled to just 2,500 native speakers. A 2020 estimate indicated that about 400,000 Filipinos (less than 0.5% of the population) have working knowledge of the language.[67]
Spanish briefly lost its status as an official language upon promulgation of the 1973 constitution but regained official status two months later when President Marcos signed Presidential Decree No. 155.[19] In the 1987 constitution, Spanish is designated as an "optional and voluntary language" but does not mention it as an "official language". Spanish was dropped as a college requirement duringCorazón Aquino's administration. Former presidentGloria Macapagal Arroyo, a third-language Spanish speaker, introduced legislation to re-establish the instruction of Spanish in 2009 in the state education system. Today, the language is still spoken by Filipino-Spanish mestizos and Spanish families who are mainly concentrated in Metro Manila,Iloilo andCebu. It remains an optional subject in some academic institutions, such as theUniversity of Santo Tomás in Manila and theUniversity of San Carlos in Cebu.
Up until recently, many historical documents, land titles, and works of literature were written in Spanish and not translated into Filipino languages or English. Spanish, through colonization has contributed the largest number ofloanwords and expressions in Tagalog, Cebuano, and other Philippine languages.[68] TheAcademia Filipina de la Lengua Española (Philippine Academy of the Spanish Language), established in 1924, is a founding member of theAssociation of Academies of the Spanish Language; an association of the various Spanish academies of the world which cooperate in the standardizing and promotion of the Spanish language. Among its past and present academics are former President Arroyo, former Foreign Affairs SecretaryAlberto Romulo, and Archbishop of Cebú CardinalRicardo Vidal.
There are severalSpanish-based creole languages in the Philippines, collectively calledChavacano. These may be split into two major geographical groups:
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{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)Thus, Arabic words became integrated into Philippine languages through Spanish (e.g., alahas (alhaja, al- haja), alkalde (alcalde, al-qadi), alkampor (alcanfor, al-kafiir), alkansiya (alcancia, al-kanziyya), aldaba (aldaba, al-dabba), almires (almirez, al-mihras), baryo (barrio, al-barri), kapre (cafre, kafir), kisame (zaquizami, saqf fassami), etc.)
The number of loanwords in the domain of cookery is rather large, and they are, by far, the most homogeneous of the loanwords.
{{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)
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