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Indonesia is home to over 700 livinglanguages spoken across its extensive archipelago.[1][2] This significant linguistic variety constitutes approximately 10% of the world’s total languages,[3] positioning Indonesia as the second most linguistically diverse nation globally, followingPapua New Guinea.[4] The majority of these languages belong to theAustronesian language family, prevalent in the western and central regions of Indonesia, including languages such asAcehnese,Sundanese, andBuginese. In contrast, the eastern regions, particularlyPapua and theMaluku Islands, are home to over 270Papuan languages, which are distinct from the Austronesian family and represent a unique linguistic heritage.[5] The language most widely spoken as a native language isJavanese, primarily by theJavanese people in thecentral andeastern parts ofJava Island, as well as across many other islands due to migration.[6]
Languages in Indonesia are classified into nine categories:national language, locally usedindigenous languages, regional lingua francas,foreign andadditional languages,heritage languages, languages in the religious domain,English as a lingua franca, andsign languages.[7][8]
The official language of Indonesia isIndonesian[9] (locally known asbahasa Indonesia), astandardised form ofMalay,[10] which serves as thelingua franca of the archipelago. According to the 2020 census, over 97% of Indonesians are fluent in Indonesian.[11] The vocabulary of Indonesian borrows heavily from regional languages of Indonesia, such asJavanese,Sundanese andMinangkabau, as well as fromDutch,Sanskrit,Portuguese,Arabic and more recentlyEnglish.[12][13][14] The Indonesian language is primarily used in commerce, administration, education and the media, and thus nearly every Indonesian speaks the language to varying degrees of proficiency.[15] Most Indonesiansspeak other languages, such asJavanese, as their first language.[2] This makesplurilingualism a norm in Indonesia.[15]
Indonesia recognizes only a single national language, and indigenous languages are recognized at the regional level, although policies vary from one region to another. For example, in theSpecial Region of Yogyakarta, theJavanese language is the region's official language along withIndonesian.[16] Javanese is the most spoken indigenous language, with native speakers constituting 31.8% of the total population of Indonesia (as of 2010).[17] Javanese speakers are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of Java, and there are also sizable numbers in most provinces. The next most widely spoken regional languages in the country areSundanese, localMalay,Madurese, andMinangkabau. A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.[18]
There are hundreds of indigenous languages spoken in Indonesia. Most of them are locally used indigenous languages,[19] a category of languages referring to those spoken at the local, regional level, spoken by a small number of people, ranging from a few to a few thousands of people. These include small languages such asBenggoi,Mombum, andTowei.[5][page needed] Other languages are spoken at the regional level to connect various ethnicities. For this reason, these languages are known as regional lingua francas (RLFs). According to Subhan Zein, there are at least 43 RLFs in Indonesia, categorized into two types: Malayic RLFs and Non-Malayic RLFs. The former refers to a group of regional lingua francas that are thought of as indigenised varieties of Malay or Indonesian. These include such languages asAmbonese Malay,Banjarese,Manado Malay, andPapuan Malay. The latter refers to regional lingua francas that are not associated with Malay or Indonesian, includingBiak,Iban, andOnin.[20][5][page needed][a]
As early as the seventh century AD, the natives of the archipelago began an intense period of trade with people fromChina,India and other countries. This was followed by a long period of colonization by theDutch andPortugal colonials. The outcome of these processes has been the development of a group of heritage languages spoken byArab,Chinese,Eurasian andDutch descendants, among others. Chinese linguistic varieties such asHokkien,Hakka, andMandarin are the most common heritage languages.Tamil is also spoken among majority of Indians in the country. A small number of heritage language speakers speakArabic andDutch.[21]
Despite the Dutch presence inIndonesia for almost 350 years (parts of Indonesia were ruled by theDutch East India Company and the whole of modern Indonesia was in theDutch East Indies) the Dutch language has no official status in Indonesia.[22] The small minority that can speak the language fluently are either educated members of the oldest generation, or employed in the legal profession,[23] as certainlaw codes are still available only in Dutch.[24]
English has historically been categorized as the firstforeign language in Indonesia.[25] However, increasing exposure to English, the decreasing influence of native-speaker norms in the country and the prevalent use of English as a lingua franca in the broader context such asASEAN means that the categorization has been put into question.[26][27] Scholars such as Lowenberg argue that English is best seen as anadditional language. Meanwhile, Zein argues that English in Indonesia is best categorized as alingua franca,[26] an argument parallel with Kirkpatrick's contention on the use ofEnglish as a lingua franca in the broader ASEAN context.[28]
Other languages, such asArabic,Chinese,French,German,Japanese,Korean,Russian,Portuguese andSpanish, are non-native to Indonesia. These languages are included in the educational curriculum and may be categorized as either foreign or additional languages, depending on the instrumental function of the languages, length and types of exposure, as well as the wide-ranging motivations of the speakers or learners who use and or learn them.[29]
There are 726 languages spoken across the Indonesian archipelago in 2009 (dropped from 742 languages in 2007), the second largest multilingual population in the world afterPapua New Guinea. Indonesian Papua, which is adjacent to Papua New Guinea, has the most languages in Indonesia.[30] Based on the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale classification used byEthnologue (formerly theSummer Institute of Linguistics), 63 languages are dying (shown in red on the bar chart, subdivided into Moribund and Nearly Extinct, or Dormant), which is defined as "The only fluent users (if any) are older than child-bearing age."[31]
Indonesia's national language policy is governed by various legal frameworks. Article 36C of the1945 Constitution mandates that matters related to the national flag, language, emblem, and anthem must be regulated by law. This mandate led to the enactment of Law No. 24 of 2009 on the National Flag, Language, Emblem, and Anthem, which dedicates Chapter III (Articles 25–45) to the regulation of the Indonesian language.[32]
In addition to regulating the national language, the government has implemented a Regional Language Revitalization Program (Revitalisasi Bahasa Daerah (RBD)), which aims to preserve and promote local languages by ensuring their transmission to younger generations.[33] To support this initiative, the ministry has published Guidelines for Regional Language Revitalization (Pedoman Model Revitalisasi Bahasa Daerah), providing a structured approach for implementation across different regions.[34]
Indonesia is home to 718 regional languages, many of which are classified as endangered or critically endangered.[35] The revitalization efforts are part of a broader strategy to maintain linguistic diversity while reinforcing the role of Indonesian as the national language.
The population numbers given below are ofnative speakers, excepting the figure for Indonesian, which counts its total speakers. The total population of the country was 237.6 million in 2010.
Several prominent languages spoken in Indonesia sorted bylanguage family are:
There are many additional small families and isolates among thePapuan languages.
Below is a full list ofPapuan language families spoken in Indonesia, following Palmer, et al. (2018):[41]
There are at least 2.5 millionsign language users across the country, although official report only shows less than 50,000.[42] Sign language users are often ridiculed and stigmatized.[43]
Indonesian languages are generally not rendered in native-invented systems, but in scripts devised by speakers of other languages, that is,Tamil,Arabic, andLatin.Malay, for example, has a long history as a written language and has been rendered inBrahmic,Arabic, andLatin scripts.Javanese has been written in thePallava script of South India, as well as their derivative (known asKawi andJavanese), in an Arabic alphabet calledpegon that incorporates Javanese sounds, and in the Latin script.
Chinese characters have never been used to write Indonesian languages, although Indonesian place-names, personal names, and names of trade goods appear in reports and histories written forChina's imperial courts.[44]
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The following texts are translations of Article 1 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights in the languages of Indonesia.
All people are born free and have the same dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should associate with each other in a spirit of brotherhood.
Semua orang dilahirkan merdeka dan mempunyai martabat dan hak-hak yang sama. Mereka dikaruniai akal dan hati nurani dan hendaknya bergaul satu sama lain dalam semangat persaudaraan.
ꦱꦧꦼꦤ꧀ꦩꦤꦸꦁꦱꦏꦭꦲꦶꦫꦏꦺꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏꦭꦤ꧀ꦢꦂꦧꦺꦩꦂꦠꦧꦠ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ꦲꦏ꧀ꦲꦏ꧀ꦏꦁꦥꦝ꧉ꦏꦧꦺꦃꦥꦶꦤꦫꦶꦔꦤ꧀ꦲꦏꦭ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ꦏꦭ꧀ꦧꦸꦱꦂꦠꦏꦲꦗꦧ꧀ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦤꦺꦥꦱꦿꦮꦸꦔꦤ꧀ꦩꦼꦩꦶꦠꦿꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦗꦶꦭꦤ꧀ꦭꦶꦪꦤꦺꦠꦤ꧀ꦱꦃꦔꦸꦒꦺꦩꦶꦗꦶꦮꦥꦱꦺꦢꦸꦭꦸꦫꦤ꧀꧉。[48]
Sabên manungsa kalairake mardika lan darbe martabat lan hak-hak kang padha. Kabeh pinaringan akal lan kalbu sarta kaajab anggone pasrawungan mêmitran siji lan liyane tansah ngugemi jiwa paseduluran.[49]
ᮞᮃᮊᮥᮙ᮪ᮔᮃ ᮏᮃᮜ᮪ᮙᮃ ᮌᮥᮘᮁᮃᮌ᮪ ᮊᮃ ᮃᮜᮃᮙ᮪ ᮓᮥᮑᮃ ᮒᮦᮂ ᮞᮤᮕᮃᮒ᮪ᮔᮃ ᮙᮨᮁᮓᮤᮊᮃ ᮏᮩᮀ ᮘᮧᮌᮃ ᮙᮃᮁᮒᮃᮘᮃᮒ᮪ ᮊᮃᮒᮥᮒ᮪ ᮠᮃᮊ᮪-ᮠᮃᮊ᮪ ᮃᮔᮥ ᮞᮃᮛᮥᮃ. ᮙᮃᮛᮃᮔᮦᮂᮔᮃ ᮓᮤᮘᮦᮛᮦ ᮃᮊᮃᮜ᮪ ᮏᮩᮀ ᮠᮃᮒᮦ ᮔᮥᮛᮃᮔᮤ, ᮎᮃᮙ᮪ᮕᮥᮁ-ᮌᮃᮅᮜ᮪ ᮏᮩᮀ ᮞᮃᮞᮃᮙᮃᮔᮃ ᮃᮚᮃ ᮓᮤᮔᮃ ᮞᮥᮙᮃᮍᮨᮒ᮪ ᮓᮥᮓᮥᮜᮥᮛᮃᮔ᮪
Sakumna jalma gubrag ka alam dunya téh sipatna merdika jeung boga martabat katut hak-hak anu sarua. Maranéhna dibéré akal jeung haté nurani, campur-gaul jeung sasamana aya dina sumanget duduluran.[50]
سادوڽو مأنسي دلهياكن مرديكا دان ڤوڽو مرتبت ساراتو حق-حق نن سامو. مريك دكارونياي اكا جو هاتي نوراني سوڤيو ساتو سامو لاين باڬاول ساروڤو اورڠ بادونسانق
Sadonyo manusia dilahiakan mardeka dan punyo martabat sarato hak-hak nan samo. Mareka dikaruniai aka jo hati nurani, supayo satu samo lain bagaul sarupo urang badunsanak.[51]
ᨔᨗᨊᨗᨊᨛᨊ ᨑᨘᨄ ᨈᨕᨘ ᨑᨗ ᨍᨍᨗᨕᨂᨛᨂᨗ ᨑᨗᨒᨗᨊᨚᨕᨛ ᨊᨄᨊᨛᨊᨕᨗ ᨆᨊᨛᨂᨛᨂᨗ ᨑᨗᨕᨔᨛᨂᨛᨂᨛ ᨕᨒᨛᨅᨛᨅᨗᨑᨛᨂᨛ. ᨊᨄᨊᨕᨗ ᨑᨗᨕᨔᨛᨂᨛᨂᨛ ᨕᨀᨒᨛᨂᨛ, ᨊᨄᨊᨕᨗ ᨑᨗᨕᨔᨛᨂᨛᨂᨛ ᨕᨈᨗ ᨆᨑᨛᨊᨛᨊᨛᨊᨗ ᨊ ᨔᨗᨅᨚᨒᨛ ᨅᨚᨒᨛᨊ ᨄᨉ ᨔᨗᨄᨀᨈᨕᨘ ᨄᨉ ᨆᨔᨛᨔᨒᨔᨘᨑᨛᨂᨛ.
Sininna rupa tau ri jajiangngi rilinoe nappunnai manengngi riasengnge alebbireng. Nappunai riasengnge akkaleng, nappunai riasengnge ati marennni na sibole bolena pada sipakatau pada massalasureng.[52]
ᬲᬫᬶᬫᬦᬸᬲᬦᬾᬲᬦᬾᬜ᭄ᬭᬸᬯᬤᬶᬯᬦ᭄ᬢᬳ᭄ᬫᬾᬃᬤᬾᬓᬢᬸᬃᬫᬤᬸᬯᬾᬓᭁᬢᬫᬦ᭄ᬮᬦ᭄ᬳᬓ᭄᭠ ᬳᬓ᭄ᬱᬦᬾᬧᬢᬾᬄ᭟ ᬲᬫᬶᬓᬮᬸᬕ᭄ᬭᬳᬶᬦ᭄ᬧᬧᬶᬦᬾᬄᬮᬦ᭄ᬳᬶᬤᬾᬧ᭄ᬢᬸᬃᬫᬗ᭄ᬤᬦᬾᬧᬤᬫᬲᬯᬶᬢ᭄ᬭᬫᬾᬮᬭᬧᬦ᭄ᬲᬾᬫᬗᬢ᭄ᬧᬓᬸᬮᬯᬃᬕᬦ᭄
Sami manusane sane nyruwadi wantah merdeka tur maduwe kautamaan lan hak-hak sane pateh. Sami kalugrain papineh lan idep tur mangdane pada masawitra melarapan semangat pakulawargaan.[53]
سموا مأنسي دلاهيركن بيبس دان سامرات دري سڬي كمولياان دان حق-حق. مريك ممڤوڽاءي ڤميكيرن دان ڤراسان هاتي دان هندقله برتيندق د انتارا ساتو سام لاين دڠن سماڠت ڤرسااودارأن.
Semua manusia dilahirkan bebas dan samarata dari segi kemuliaan dan hak-hak. Mereka mempunyai pemikiran dan perasaan hati dan hendaklah bertindak di antara satu sama lain dengan semangat persaudaraan.[54]
ᯘᯮᯑᯩ ᯐᯬᯞ᯲ᯔ ᯖᯮᯅᯮ ᯅᯩᯅᯘ᯲ ᯐᯞ ᯘᯒᯮᯇ ᯑᯬ ᯂᯘᯝᯇᯬᯉ᯲ ᯑᯬᯂᯬᯖ᯲ ᯂᯄ᯦᯲ᯉ. ᯑᯪᯞᯩᯂᯬᯉ᯲ ᯑᯬ ᯖᯮ ᯉᯘᯪᯑ ᯀᯄ᯦ᯞ᯲ ᯑᯬᯂᯬᯖ᯲ ᯇᯰᯎᯬᯒ ᯉᯪ ᯒᯬᯂ ᯐᯞ ᯤᯰᯄ᯦ᯬᯉ᯲ ᯔᯘᯪᯥᯒᯮᯇᯉ᯲ ᯑᯬ ᯉᯘᯪᯑ ᯑᯪ ᯅᯎᯘᯉ᯲ ᯖᯬᯉ᯲ᯑᯪ ᯇᯒ᯲ᯂᯂᯔᯒᯰᯎᯪᯀᯬᯉ᯲
Sude jolma tubu bebas jala sarupa do hasangapon dohot hakna. Dilehon do tu nasida akal dohot panggora ni roha jala ingkon masiurupan do nasida di bagasan tondi parhahamaranggion.[citation needed]
سادجان اوريڠ لاهير مردكا اي ساريڠ دراجت كلابن حق-حق سي ضا-ڤاضا. سادجان ايڤرڠي عقل ساريڠ نوراني بن كودو اريڠ-ساريڠ اكنچ كادي تاريتن
Sadajana oreng lahir mardika e sarenge drajat klaban hak-hak se dha-padha. Sadajana eparenge akal sareng nurani ban kodu areng-sareng akanca kadi taretan.[55]
ᨔᨗᨀᨚᨊᨛᨈᨘ ᨈᨕᨘ ᨊᨗᨒᨔᨛᨔᨘᨀᨂᨛ ᨅᨛᨅᨔ ᨔᨗᨕᨁᨂᨛ ᨊᨗᨕ ᨂᨔᨛᨂᨗ ᨆᨑᨛᨈᨅᨈᨛ ᨔᨗᨕᨁᨂᨛ ᨖᨀᨛ-ᨖᨀᨛᨊ. ᨕᨗᨕᨆᨗᨊᨛᨈᨘ ᨊᨗᨔᨑᨛ ᨕᨀᨒ ᨔᨗᨕᨁᨂᨛ ᨕᨈᨗ ᨊᨘᨑᨊᨗ ᨔᨗᨕᨁᨂᨛ ᨄᨑᨒᨛᨒᨘᨕᨗ ᨕᨔᨛᨔᨗᨕᨁᨂᨛ ᨆᨔᨛᨔᨗᨂᨛ-ᨆᨔᨛᨔᨗᨂᨛ ᨒᨒᨂᨛ ᨑᨚᨖᨛ ᨄᨛᨑᨛᨔᨕᨘᨉᨑᨕᨊᨛ.
Sikontu tau nilassukang bebasa siagang nia ngasengi martabat siagang hak-hakna. Iamintu nisare akkala siagang ati nurani siagang parallui assiagang massing-massing lalang roh persaudaraan.[citation needed]
Galo-galo uwong dari lahirnyo bebas, samorato martabat jugo hak-haknyo. Wong dienjuk utak samo raso ati, kendaknyo tu begaul sesamo manusio pecak wong sedulur.[citation needed]
ᯅᯖᯄ᯦᯲ ᯖᯬᯅ ᯏᯉᯮᯈ᯳ ᯐᯬᯟ᯳ᯕ ᯖᯮᯅᯮᯃ᯳ ᯕᯓ᯳ᯑᯩᯃ ᯐᯉᯃ᯳ ᯙᯓᯮᯈ ᯑᯬ ᯃᯓ᯳ᯏ ᯑᯫᯓᯫ ᯁᯕ᯳ᯈ ᯃᯃ᯳ᯉᯫ. ᯁᯪᯅᯩᯓᯩ ᯑᯬ ᯅᯉᯫ ᯙᯫᯑᯩᯀ ᯈᯫᯰᯃᯫᯓᯉ᯳ ᯁᯕ᯳ᯈ ᯈᯰᯏᯬᯓ ᯉᯫ ᯁᯮᯃᯮᯓ᯳ ᯐᯉᯃ᯳ ᯕᯉᯫᯝᯬᯉ᯳ ᯕᯓ᯳ᯙᯀᯬᯓ᯳ ᯑᯬ ᯙᯫᯑᯩᯀ ᯁᯪᯅᯏᯙ᯳ ᯖᯬᯉ᯲ᯑᯮᯜ᯳ ᯈᯓ᯳ᯙᯉᯫᯉᯀᯬᯉ᯳
Ganup jolma tubuh mardeka janah sarupa do harga diri ampa hakni. Ibere do bani sidea pingkiran ampa panggora ni uhur janah maningon marsaor do sidea ibagas tonduy parsaninaon.[citation needed]
Bandum ureuëng lahé deungon meurdéhka, dan deungon martabat dan hak njang saban. Ngon akai geuseumiké, ngon haté geumeurasa, bandum geutanjoë lagèë sjèëdara.[56]
Ema hotu hotu moris hanesan ho dignidade ho direitu. Sira hotu iha hanoin, konsiensia n'e duni tenki hare malu hanesan espiritu maun-alin.[citation needed]
Atoni ma bife ok-okê mahonis kamafutû ma nmuî upan ma hak namnés. Sin napein tenab ma nekmeü ma sin musti nabai es nok es onlê olif-tataf.[citation needed]
Kanan mansian mahonis merdeka ma nok upan ma hak papmesê. Sin naheun nok tenab ma nekmeû ma sin es nok es musti nfain onlê olif-tataf.[citation needed]
ᯂᯩᯒᯫᯉ ᯔᯉᯬᯘᯫᯀ ᯖᯬᯆᯬᯀ᯳ ᯆᯩᯆᯘ᯳ ᯒᯘ᯳ ᯘᯩᯒᯫ ᯔᯒ᯳ᯖᯆᯖ᯳ ᯒᯘ᯳ ᯀᯂ᯳ᯉ. ᯂᯞᯂ᯳ ᯀᯩᯢ ᯀᯪᯆᯩᯒᯩᯂᯩᯉ᯳ ᯀᯂᯞ᯳ ᯒᯘ᯳ ᯇᯬᯘᯬᯀ᯳ ᯇᯩᯒᯖᯩᯉ᯳ ᯐᯉᯀ᯳ ᯀᯒᯬᯘ᯳ ᯀᯩᯒ᯳ᯘᯑ ᯀᯒᯫᯀ᯳ᯉ ᯀᯞᯬ ᯘᯩᯔᯝᯖ᯳ ᯇᯩᯒ᯳ᯘᯑᯉ᯳
Kerina manusia tubuh bebas ras seri martabat ras hakna. Kalak enda ibereken akal ras pusuh peraten janah arus ersada arihna alu semangat persadan.[citation needed]
صبراتان مأنسي درانكاكن بيبس مردكا وان باءايسي مرتبت لاون جوا باءايسي حق-حق نڠ سام. بوبوهنڽ صبراتان دباريءا عقل وان جوا ڤڠراس هاتي نوراني، سوڤاي ساموڽان اورڠ انتارا ساءايكوڠ لاون ساءايكوڠ باڤتوتن نڠكيا اورڠ بادڠسانكن
Sabarataan manusia diranakakan bibas mardika wan ba'isi martabat lawan jua ba'isi hak-hak nang sama. Bubuhannya sabarataan dibari'i akal wan jua pangrasa hati nurani, supaya samunyaan urang antara sa'ikung lawan sa'ikung bapatutan nangkaya urang badangsanakan.[citation needed]
Unyin Jelema dilaheʁko merdeka jama wat pi'il ʁik hak sai gokgoh. Tiyan dikaruniako akal jama hati nurani maʁai unggal tiyan dapok nengah nyampoʁ dilom semangat muaʁiyan.[citation needed]
Kaunyin jolma tilahirko mardeka rik uwat pi'il rik hak-hak sai goh-goh. Tiyan tiunjuk akal pikiran rik hati nurani mari tiyan dapok nyampur rik sai barihna dilom semangat bukolpah.[citation needed]
Kutê tun laher mêrdeka, tmuan hok-hok gik srai. Kutê nagiak-ba akêa peker ngen atêi, kêrno o kêlok-nê bêkuat-ba do ngen luyên lêm asai sêpasuak.[citation needed]
Segalo orang dilahirkan merdeka kek punyo martabat kek hak-hak yang samo. Tobonyo dikasi akal kek hati nurani supayo bekawan dalam raso cak orang besanak.[citation needed]
Below is a chart of several Indonesian languages. All of them except forGalela belong to theAustronesian language family. While there have been misunderstandings on which ones should be classified aslanguages and which ones should be classified asdialects, the chart confirms that many have similarities, yet are not mutually comprehensible. The languages are arranged geographically.
| English translations | one | two | three | four | water | person | house | dog | cat | coconut | day | new | we, us | I/me | you | yes | no | what | and |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Indonesian | satu | dua | tiga | empat | air | orang | rumah | anjing | kucing | kelapa | hari | baru | kita/kami | saya/aku | Anda/kamu/kau | ya/iya | tidak | apa | dan |
| Minangkabau | cie' | duo | tigo | ampe' | aie | urang | rumah | anjiang | kuciang | karambia | hari | baru | awak | denai/ambo | awak/ang | iyo | indak | apo | jo |
| Palembang Malay | sikok | duo | tigo | empat | banyu | wong | rumah | anjing | kucing | kelapo | ari | baru | kito | aku/wong | kabba/kamu | iyo | dido | apo | dan |
| Betawi | atu' | dué | tigé | empat | aér | orang | ruméh | anjing | kucing | kelapé | ari | baru | kité | ane/gue/gua | ente/lu/loe | iye | kagak | apé | amé |
| Banjarese | asa | dua | talu | ampat | banyu | urang | rumah | hadupan | batingas | nyiur | hari | hanyar | kita | aku | kauw | apa | wan | ||
| Kutainese | satu | due | tige | empat | ranam | urang | rumah | koyok | nyiur | hari | beru | etam | apa | dengan | |||||
| Manado Malay | satu | dua | tiga | ampa | aer | orang | ruma | anjing | kucing | kalapa | hari | baru | torang | kita/saya | ngana/torang | io | nda' | apa | deng |
| Ambonese Malay | satu | dua | tiga | ampa | air | orang | ruma | anjing | kucing | kalapa | hari | baru | katong | kita/saya | ngana | iyo | seng | apa | deng |
| Acehnese | sa | dua | lhèë | peuët | ië | ureuëng | rumoh | asèë | miong / miei | u | uroë | ban | geutanyoë | lon | droeneuh | nye | keun | peuë | ngon |
| Nias | sara | dua | tölu | öfa | idanö | niha | omo | asu | mao | banio | luo | bohou | ya'ita | hadia | ba | ||||
| Toba Batak | sada | dua | tolu | opat | aek | halak | jabu | biang | huting | harambiri | ari | ibbaru | hita | au | ho | olo | daong | aha | dohot |
| Mandailing Batak | sada | dua | tolu | opat | aek | halak | bagas | asu | arambir | ari | baru | hita | aha | dohot | |||||
| Lampung | say | ʁuwa | telu | ampat | way | jelema | nuwa | asu | kucing | nyiwi | ʁani | ampai | ʁam | api | jama | ||||
| Komering | osai | rua | tolu | opak | uway | jolma | lombahan | asu | kucing | nyiwi | harani | ompai/anyar | ram/kita | apiya | rik | ||||
| Rejang (of Lebong dialect) | do | duai | tlau | pat | bioa | tun manusio | umêak | kuyuk | kucing | nioa | bilai | blau | itê | uku | coa | jano, gen | ngen, magêa | ||
| Sundanese | hiji | dua | tilu | opat | cai/ci | jalma | imah | anjing | ucing | kalapa | poé | anyar | urang | abdi/aing | eta/anjeun | enya | henteu | naon | jeung |
| Javanese | siji | loro | têlu[57] | papat | banyu | uwòng[57] | omah | asu | kucing | kambìl[57] | dinå[57] | anyar/énggal[57] | adhéwé[57] | aku | kowe | iya/wis | ora | åpå[57]/anu | lan |
| Madurese | settong | dhuwa' | tello' | empa' | âêng | oreng | roma | pate' | kochèng | nyior | are | anyar | sengko | kaulâh | be'na | iyâ | phunten | apa | bèn |
| Balinese | besik | dadua | telu | papat | yéh | jadma | umah | cicing/kuluk | méong | nyuh | rahina | mara | iraga | tiang | ragane | nggih | ten | apa | muah/lan |
| Sasak | sa/seke' | due | telu | mpat | aik | dengan | bale | acong/basong | kenyamen/nyioh | jelo | baru | ite | ape | dait | |||||
| Bima | ica | dua | tolu | upa | oi | dou | uma | lako | ngao | ni'u | nai | bou | nami | au | labo | ||||
| Ngaju Dayak | ije' | due' | telu' | epat | danum | uluh | huma' | asu | posa | enyuh | andau | taheta | itah | narai | tuntang | ||||
| Kenyah Dayak[58] | sé | dué | telew | pat | sungai | kelunan / klunan | lamin / uma' | asew | séang | nyo | dau | maring | mé' tew / teleu | inew | ngan | ||||
| Torajan | misa | daʼdua | tallu | aʼpaʼ | uai | tau | banua | asu | serreʼ | kaluku | allo | mabaru | kita | aku | iko | io | taeʼ | apa | sisola |
| Mandar | mesaʼ | daʼdua | tallu | appeʼ | wai | tau | boyang | asu | posa | anjoro | allo | baru | ita | yau | iʼo | apa | |||
| Buginese | seddi | dua | tellu | eppa | waé | tau | bola | asu | meong | kaluku | esso | ma-baru | idiʼ | iyaʼ | iko | ieʼ | déʼ | aga | sibawa |
| Makassarese | seʼre | rua | tallu | appaʼ | jeʼneʼ | tau | ballaʼ | kongkong | miong | kaluku | allo | beru | ikatte | inakke | ikau | io, ieʼ | tena | apa | siagang |
| Mongondow | tobatú | doyowa | toḷu | opat | tubig | intau | baḷoi | ungkú | pinggó | bangó | singgai | mo-bagu | kita | onu | bo | ||||
| Tolaki | o'aso | o'ruo | o'tolu | o'omba | iwoi | toono | laika | odahu | kaluku | oleo | wuohu | inggito | ohawo | ronga | |||||
| Galela | moi | sinoto | sa'ange | iha | ake | nyawa | tahu | kaso | igo | wange | ḋamomuane | ngone | okia | de | |||||
| Biak | oser/eser | suru | kyor | fyak | war | snon/kawasa | rum | naf/rofan | pus | sray | ras | babo | ko | sa | ma/kuker | ||||
| Tetum | ida | rua | tolu | haat | bee | ema | uma | asu | busa | nuu | loron | foun | ami | ne'ebé | no | ||||
| Mandarin Chinese | 一 (yī) | 二 (èr) | 三 (sān) | 四 (sì) | 水 (shuǐ) | 人 (rén) | 房子 (fángzi) | 狗 (gǒu) | 猫 (māo) | 椰子 (yēzi) | 天 (tiān) | 新的 (xīnde) | 我们 (wǒmen) | 我 (wǒ) | 你 (nǐ) | 是的 (Shì de) | 不 (bù) | 什么 (shénme) | 和 (hé) |
| Dutch | een | twee | drie | vier | water | mensen | thuis | hond | kat | kokosnoot | dag | nieuw | ons | Ik/mij | U/jij | ja | nee | wat | en |
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