A multitude of languages have always been spoken inCanada. Prior toConfederation, the territories that would become Canada were home to over 70 distinct languages across 12 or solanguage families. Today, a majority of thoseindigenous languages are still spoken; however, most are endangered and only about 0.6% of the Canadian population report an indigenous language as their mother tongue.[nb 2] Since the establishment of the Canadianstate,English andFrench have been the co-official languages and are, by far, the most-spoken languages in the country.
According to the 2021 census, English and French are themother tongues of 56.6% and 20.2% ofCanadians respectively.[4] According to the 2016 census, a total of 86.2% of Canadians could conduct a conversation in English, while 29.8% could conduct a conversation in French.[5] Under theOfficial Languages Act of 1969, both English and French have official status throughout Canada in respect of federal government services and most courts. All federal legislation is enacted bilingually. Provincially, only inNew Brunswick are both English and French official to the same extent. French isQuebec's official language,[6] although legislation is enacted in both French and English and court proceedings may be conducted in either language. English is the official language ofOntario,Manitoba andAlberta, but government services are available in French in many regions of each, particularly in regions and cities where Francophones form the majority. Legislation is enacted in both languages and courts conduct cases in both. In 2022,Nova Scotia recognizedMi'kmawi'simk as the first language of the province,[1][2] and maintains two provincial language secretariats: the Office ofAcadian Affairs and Francophonie (French language) and the Office of Gaelic Affairs (Canadian Gaelic). The remaining provinces (British Columbia,Saskatchewan,Prince Edward Island, andNewfoundland and Labrador) do not have an official provincial languageper se but government is primarily English-speaking. Territorially, both theNorthwest Territories andNunavut have official indigenous languages alongside French and English:Inuktut (Inuktitut andInuinnaqtun) in Nunavut[7] and, in the NWT, nine others (Cree,Dënësųłıné,Dene Yatıé/Zhatıé,[nb 3]Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut,Inuvialuktun,Sahtúgot’įné Yatı̨́ / Shíhgot’įne Yatı̨́ / K’ashógot’įne Goxedǝ́,[nb 3] andTłįchǫ Yatıì).[9]
Canada'sofficial languages commissioner (the federal government official charged with monitoring the two languages) said in 2009, "[I]n the same way that race is at the core of what it means to be American and at the core of an American experience and class is at the core of British experience, I think that language is at the core of Canadian experience."[10] To assist in more accurately monitoring the two official languages, Canada'scensus collects a number ofdemolinguistic descriptors not enumerated in the censuses of most other countries, includinghome language,mother tongue,first official language, andlanguage of work.
Canada's linguistic diversity extends beyond English, French and numerous indigenous languages. "In Canada, 4.7 million people (14.2% of the population) reported speaking a language other than English or French most often at home and 1.9 million people (5.8%) reported speaking such a language on a regular basis as a second language (in addition to their main home language, English or French). In all, 20.0% of Canada's population reported speaking a language other than English or French at home. For roughly 6.4 million people, the other language was an immigrant language, spoken most often or on a regular basis at home, alone or together with English or French whereas for more than 213,000 people, the other language was an indigenous language. Finally, the number of people reporting sign languages as the languages spoken at home was nearly 25,000 people (15,000 most often and 9,800 on a regular basis)."[nb 4]
The percentage of the population speaking English, French or both languages most often at home has declined since 1986; the decline has been greatest for French. The proportion of the population who speak neither English nor French in the home has increased. Geographically, this trend remains constant, as usage of English and French have declined in both English and French speaking regions of the country, but French has declined more rapidly both inside and outside Quebec. The table below shows the percentage of the total Canadian population who speak Canada's official languages most often at home from 1971 to 2006.[13] Note that there are nuances between "language most spoken at home", "mother-language" and "first official language": data is collected for all three, which together provide a more detailed and complete picture of language-use in Canada.
In 2011, just under 21.5 million Canadians, representing 65% of the population, spoke English most of the time at home, while 58% declared it their mother language.[14] English is the major language everywhere in Canada exceptQuebec andNunavut, and most Canadians (85%) can speak English.[15] While English is not the preferred language in Quebec, 36.1% ofQuébécois can speak English.[16] Nationally,Francophones are five times more likely to speak English than Anglophones are to speak French – 44% and 9% respectively.[17] Only 3.2% of Canada's English-speaking population resides in Quebec—mostly in Montreal.[nb 5]
In 2011, 28.4 million Canadians had knowledge of English while only 21.6 million Canadians spoke it most often at home.[18][19]
In 2011, just over 7.1 million Canadians spoke French most often at home, this was a rise of 4.2%, although the proportion of people in Canada who spoke French "most often" at home fell slightly from 21.7% to 21.5% . Of these, about 6.1 million or 85% resided in Quebec.[20] Outside Quebec, the largest French-speaking populations are found in New Brunswick (which is home to 3.1% of Canada's Francophones) andOntario (4.2%, residing primarily in theeastern andnortheastern parts of the province and in Toronto and Ottawa). Overall, 22% of people in Canada declare French to be their mother language, while one in three Canadians speak French and 70% are unilingual Anglophones.[nb 6] Smaller indigenous French-speaking communities exist in some other provinces.[21] For example, a vestigial community exists on Newfoundland'sPort au Port Peninsula, a remnant of the "French Shore" along the island's west coast.
The percentage of the population who speak French both by mother tongue and home language has decreased over the past three decades. Whereas the number of those who speak English at home is higher than the number of people whose mother tongue is English, the opposite is true for Francophones. There are fewer people who speak French at home, than learned French after birth.[22]
Ethnic diversity is growing inFrench Canada but still lags behind the English-speaking parts of the country. In 2006, 91.5% ofQuebecers considered themselves to be of either "French" or "Canadian" origin. As a result of the growth in immigration, since the 1970s, from countries in which French is a widely used language, 3.4% of Quebecers indicated that they were of Haitian, Belgian, Swiss, Lebanese or Moroccan origin.[23] Other groups of non-francophone immigrants (Irish Catholics, Italian, Portuguese, etc.) have also assimilated into French over the generations. The Irish, who started arriving in large numbers in Quebec in the 1830s, were the first such group, which explains why it has been possible for Quebec to have had fivepremiers of Irish ethnic origin:John Jones Ross (1884–87),Edmund James Flynn (1896–97),Daniel Johnson Sr. (1966–68),Pierre-Marc Johnson (1985), andDaniel Johnson Jr. (1994).
In 1991, due to linguistic assimilation of Francophones outside Quebec, over one million Canadians who claimed English as their mother tongue were of French ethnic origin (1991 Census).
According to the 2011 census, 98.2% of Canadian residents have knowledge of one or both of the country's two official languages,[15] Between 2006 and 2011, the number of persons who reported being able to conduct a conversation in both of Canada's official languages increased by nearly 350,000 to 5.8 million. The bilingualism rate of the Canadian population edged up from 17.4% in 2006 to 17.5% in 2011.[11] This growth of English-French bilingualism in Canada was mainly due to the increased number of Quebecers who reported being able to conduct a conversation in English and French.[11]
Bilingualism with regard to nonofficial languages also increased, most individuals speaking English plus an immigrant language such as Punjabi or Mandarin.[26]
| Year | # Bilingual Canadians | % Quebec | % Rest of Canada | Total # Canadians | % Quebec | % Rest of Canada |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1941[27][28] | 1,472,858 | 59.9% | 39.5% | 11,506,700 | 29.0% | 71.0% |
| 1951[29] | 1,727,400 | 60.1% | 39.9% | 14,009,400 | 28.9% | 71.1% |
| 1961[30] | 2,231,200 | 60.0% | 40.0% | 18,238,200 | 28.8% | 71.2% |
| 1971[31] | 2,900,150 | 57.4% | 42.6% | 21,568,310 | 27.9% | 72.1% |
| 1981[32] | 3,681,955 | 56.1% | 43.9% | 24,083,495 | 26.4% | 73.6% |
| 1986[33] | 4,056,155 | 54.9% | 45.1% | 25,022,005 | 25.8% | 74.2% |
| 1991[34] | 4,398,655 | 54.9% | 45.1% | 26,994,045 | 25.2% | 74.8% |
| 1996[35] | 4,841,320 | 55.0% | 45.0% | 28,528,120 | 24.2% | 75.8% |
| 2001[36] | 5,231,575 | 55.6% | 44.0% | 29,639,030 | 24.0% | 76.0% |
| 2006[37] | 5,448,850 | 55.4% | 44.6% | 31,241,030 | 23.8% | 76.2% |
| 2016[38] | 6,251,485 | 57.9% | 42.1% | 34,767,255 | 23.2% | 76.8% |
According to the2011 census, 94.3% of Quebecers have knowledge of French, and 47.2% have knowledge of English.[15] Bilingualism (of the two official languages) is largely limited to Quebec itself, and to a strip of territory sometimes referred to as the "bilingual belt", that stretches east from Quebec into northern New Brunswick and west into parts of Ottawa and northeastern Ontario. 85% of bilingual Canadians live within Quebec, Ontario and New Brunswick.[15] A majority of all bilingual Canadians, (57.4%) are themselves Quebecers,[15] and a high percentage of the bilingual population in the rest of Canada resides in close proximity to the Quebec border.
Similarly, the rate of bilingualism in Quebec has risen higher, and more quickly than in the rest of Canada. In Quebec, the rate of bilingualism has increased from 26% of the population being able to speak English and French in 1951 to 42.5% in 2011.[15] As of 2011, in the rest of Canada (excluding Quebec) the rate of bilingualism was 7.5%.[15]
| Province/territory | % of population | Total number | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Quebec | 44.5% | 3,586,410 | [39] |
| New Brunswick | 34% | 249,950 | [40] |
| Northwest Territories | 14% | 4,900 | [41] |
| Prince Edward Island | 13% | 17,840 | [42] |
| Ontario | 11.2% | 1,490,390 | [43] |
| Nova Scotia | 10.5% | 95,380 | [44] |
| Yukon | 10.3% | 4,275 | [45] |
| Manitoba | 9% | 108,460 | [46] |
| Alberta | 7% | 264,720 | [47] |
| British Columbia | 7% | 314,925 | [48] |
| Saskatchewan | 5% | 51,560 | [49] |
| Newfoundland and Labrador | 5% | 25,940 | [50] |
| Nunavut | 4.3% | 1,525 | [51] |
| Canada—Total | 17.9% | 6,216,065 | [39] |
English–French bilingualism is highest among members of local linguistic minorities. It is very uncommon for Canadians to be capable of speaking only the minority official language of their region (French outside Quebec or English in Quebec). Only 1.5% of Canadians are able to speak only the minority official language, and of these most (90%) live in the bilingual belt.[52]
As the table below shows, rates of bilingualism are much higher among individuals who belong to the linguistic minority group for their region of Canada, than among members of the local linguistic majority. For example, within Quebec around 37% of bilingual Canadians are Francophones, whereas Francophones only represent 4.5% of the population outside Quebec.[53]
| Anglophones | Francophones | Allophones | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Quebec | 66.1% | 36.6% | 50.4% |
| Rest of Canada | 7.1% | 85.1% | 5.7% |
French-speaking Canadians from outside Quebec andEnglish-speaking Quebecers are, together, the official language minority communities. These communities are:
The language continuity index represents the relationship between the number of people who speak French most often at home and the number for whom French is their mother tongue. A continuity index of less than one indicates that French has more losses than gains – that more people with French as a mother tongue speak another language at home. Outside Quebec, New Brunswick has the highest French language continuity ratio.British Columbia andSaskatchewan have the lowest French language continuity ratio and thus the lowest retention of French. From 1971 to 2011, the overall ratio for French language continuity outside Quebec declined from 0.73 to 0.45. Declines were the greatest forManitoba, Saskatchewan, andNewfoundland.
| Province/Territory | 1971 | 1981 | 1991 | 1996 | 2001 | 2006 | 2011 | 2021 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| New Brunswick | 0.92 | 0.93 | 0.93 | 0.92 | 0.91 | 0.91 | 0.89 | 0.89 |
| Quebec | - | - | 1.01 | 1.01 | 1.02 | 1.03 | 1.03 | 1.03 |
| Nunavut | - | - | - | - | 0.54 | 0.57 | 0.58 | 0.65 |
| Canada | - | - | 0.96 | 0.96 | 0.96 | 0.97 | 0.97 | 0.98 |
| Ontario | 0.73 | 0.72 | 0.63 | 0.61 | 0.60 | 0.60 | 0.57 | 0.55 |
| Nova Scotia | 0.69 | 0.69 | 0.59 | 0.57 | 0.56 | 0.53 | 0.51 | 0.46 |
| Prince Edward Island | 0.60 | 0.64 | 0.53 | 0.53 | 0.48 | 0.49 | 0.47 | 0.45 |
| Manitoba | 0.65 | 0.60 | 0.49 | 0.47 | 0.46 | 0.45 | 0.42 | 0.40 |
| Yukon | 0.30 | 0.45 | 0.43 | 0.46 | 0.46 | 0.49 | 0.57 | 0.58 |
| Northwest Territories | 0.50 | 0.51 | 0.47 | 0.43 | 0.39 | 0.46 | 0.51 | 0.54 |
| Newfoundland and Labrador | 0.63 | 0.72 | 0.47 | 0.42 | 0.42 | 0.36 | 0.46 | 0.39 |
| Alberta | 0.49 | 0.49 | 0.36 | 0.32 | 0.33 | 0.33 | 0.36 | 0.35 |
| Saskatchewan | 0.50 | 0.41 | 0.33 | 0.29 | 0.26 | 0.26 | 0.26 | 0.25 |
| British Columbia | 0.30 | 0.35 | 0.28 | 0.29 | 0.29 | 0.30 | 0.29 | 0.30 |
Canada is home to a rich variety ofindigenous languages, most of which are spoken nowhere else. There are 14 indigenouslanguage groups in Canada with about 100 distinct languages and dialects, including many sign languages.[63] Almost all indigenous languages in Canada are consideredendangered, with the exception ofInuktitut,Inuinnaqtun, and the Cree varietiesNaskapi,Atikamekw,East Cree, andPlains Cree.[64] Prior tocolonization,multilingualism was common across indigenous nations, many of whom often seasonally migrated. However, thereserve system created more permanent stationarybands, which have generally selected only one of their various ancestral languages to try to preserve in the face of increasingAnglicization,Francization,[65] or Amslanization (the process by whichAmerican Sign Language replaces localsign languages).[66] In addition, theresidential school system attempted to institutionally exterminate languages and cultures from coast to coast to coast. The cruel methods (such asphysical andsexual abuse, as well as death rates as high as one in twenty children[67]) resulted in a sharp declines in language use across all nations,[68] including amongstdeaf andsigning communities.[69]
Robert Falcon Ouellette, a Cree Member of Parliament, played a pivotal role in promoting indigenous languages within theCanadian Parliament andCanadian House of Commons. He was instrumental in obtaining unanimous consent from all political parties to change the standing orders to allow indigenous languages to be spoken in the House of Commons, with full translation services provided. This historic change enabled Ouellette to deliver a speech in Cree, marking the first use of an indigenous language in the House on Jan 28, 2019.[70][71][72]
Furthermore, Bill C-91, the Indigenous Languages Act passed in 2019, was enacted to support and revitalize indigenous languages across Canada. This legislation, aims to reclaim, revitalize, and maintain indigenous languages through sustainable funding and the establishment of the Office of the Commissioner of Indigenous Languages. Ouellette was the chair of the indigenous caucus in the House of Commons and helped ensure it passage before the election of 2019.[73][74][75][76]
Two of Canada'sterritories give official status to native languages. InNunavut, Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun, known collectively asInuktut, are official languages alongside the national languages of English and French, and Inuktitut is a commonvehicular language in territorial government.[77][78] In theNorthwest Territories, theOfficial Languages Act declares that there are eleven different languages: Cree,Dënësųłıné,Dene Yatıé / Dene Zhatıé,[nb 3] English, French,Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut,Inuvialuktun,Sahtúgot’įné Yatı̨́ / K’ashógot’įne Goxedǝ́ / Shíhgot’įne Yatı̨́,[nb 3] andTłįchǫ.[9] Besides English and French, these languages are not vehicular in government; official status entitles citizens to receive services in them on request and to deal with the government in them.[79]
Awaitingroyal assent in October 2022 onTreaty Day,Nova Scotia has affirmedMi'kmawi'simk as the "First Language" of the province through a bill titled the "Mi'kmaw Language Act" (No. 148). The Act establishes a language committee co-developed and co-run byMiꞌkmaw Kinaꞌmatnewey as well as ensuring "government support for the preservation, revitalization, promotion and protection of the Mi’kmaw language for generations to come," collaboratively developing strategy between theMi'kmaq of Nova Scotia and theGovernment of Nova Scotia.[2]
According to the 2016 census, less than one per cent of Canadians (213,225) reported an indigenous language as their mother tongue, and less than one per cent of Canadians (137,515) reported an indigenous language as the language spoken most often at home.[80] Whilst most Canadian indigenous languages are endangered and their current speaker numbers are frequently low, the number of speakers has grown and even outpaced the number with an indigenous mother tongue, indicating that many people continue to learn the languages even if not initially raised with them.[81]
Given the destruction of indigenous state structures, academics usually classify indigenous peoples of Canada by region into "culture areas", or by their language family.[82]
| Indigenous languages | No. of speakers | Mother tongue | Home language |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cree (n.o.s.)[nb 7][a] | 99,950 | 78,855 | 47,190 |
| Inuktitut | 35,690 | 32,010 | 25,290 |
| Ojibwemowin | 32,460 | 11,115 | 11,115 |
| Innu–Naskapi | 11,815 | 10,970 | 9,720 |
| Denesuline | 11,130 | 9,750 | 7,490 |
| Oji-Cree (Anishininimowin) | 12,605 | 8,480 | 8,480 |
| Mi'kmawi'simk | 8,750 | 7,365 | 3,985 |
| Siouan languages (Dakota/Nakota) | 6,495 | 5,585 | 3,780 |
| Atikamekw | 5,645 | 5,245 | 4,745 |
| Blackfoot | 4,915 | 3,085 | 3,085 |
| Tłįchǫ | 2,645 | 2,015 | 1,110 |
| Algonquin (Omàmìwininìmowin) | 2,685 | 1,920 | 385 |
| Dakelh | 2,495 | 1,560 | 605 |
| Gitxsanimaax | 1,575 | 1,175 | 320 |
| Tsilhqot'in | 1,400 | 1,070 | 435 |
| Sahtúgot’įné Yatı̨́ / K’ashógot’įne Goxedǝ́ / Shíhgot’įne Yatı̨́[nb 3] | 1,235 | 650 | 650 |
| Dené Dháh / Dene Yatıé / Dene Zhatıé[nb 3] | 2,315 | 600 | 600 |
| Wəlastəkey latowewakən | 790 | 535 | 140 |
| Inuinnaqtun | 580 | 370 | 70 |
| Gwich’in | 570 | 355 | 25 |
| Kanienʼkéha | 615 | 290 | 20 |
| Secwepemctsín | 1,650 | 250 | 250 |
| Nisg̱a'a | 1,090 | 250 | 250 |
| Tlingit | 175 | 0 | 0 |
| Atgangmuurngniq | 47[84] | Unknown | Unknown |
| Onʌyota'a:ká Sign Language[b] | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown |
| Plains Sign Talk[b] | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown |
| Secwepemcékst[b] | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown |
Glottolog 4.3 (2020) counted 13 independent indigenous language families and/or isolates in Canada.[86] A potential fourteenth family, that of thesign languages of the Plateau, possibly hosting languages likeSecwepemcékst andKtunaxa Sign Language, remains unlisted by Glottolog. It remains unknown to academia the extent which sign languages are spoken and how they relate to and across linguistic families.[85]
In Canada, as elsewhere in the world ofEuropean colonization, the frontier of European exploration and settlement tended to be a linguistically diverse and fluid place, as cultures using different languages met and interacted. The need for a common means of communication between the indigenous inhabitants and new arrivals for the purposes of trade and (in some cases) intermarriage led to the development ofhybrid languages. These languages tended to be highly localized, were often spoken by only a small number of individuals who were frequently capable of speaking another language, and often persisted only briefly, before being wiped out by the arrival of a large population of permanent settlers, speaking either English or French.
Spoken until about 1760, thispidgin was spoken betweenBreton andBasque fishermen andNunatuKavummiut ofNunatuKavut (Labrador).
Named from theOjibwe wordbangii meaning "a little bit,"[87][88] the meagrely documentedBungi Creole (also known as Bungee, Bungy, Bungie, Bungay, and as the Red River Dialect) is a mixed language predominantly anchored in English that evolved within the PrairieMétis community, specifically theCountryborn or Anglo-Métis. Due to the multicultural nature of theRed River Settlement, Bungi was influenced byScottish English,Nehiyawewin,Nakawemowin, theOrcadian dialect ofScots,Norn,Scottish Gaelic, andCanadian French.[89][90][91] The vocabulary and word order were primarily English, but the speech was lilting like that of Gaelic speakers, with pronunciation and structural shifts coming from theCree languages, such as:shawl becomingsawl,she becomingsee, and the popular greetingI’m well, you but?.[92] Bungi reached its peak in the nineteenth century, with about 5,000 Countryborn native speakers of the dialect in 1870. However, over the next century, standard Canadian English gradually replaced it; and by the late 1980s, only a handful of elderly speakers remained. It is generally considered to beasleep today.[92]
Spoken in theMaritime provinces (mostly inNew Brunswick),Chiac is acreole language with a linguistic base inAcadian French andMaritime English with significant contributions fromMi'kmawi'simk and theMaliseet language.[93] Notable for itscode-switching between English and French, it is often popularly considered a variant ofFranglais, with examples such as:Espère-moi su'l'corner, j'traverse le ch'min pi j'viens right back (Wait for me at the corner, I'm crossing the road and I'll be right back) andOn va amarrer ça d'même pour faire sûr que ça tchenne[94] (We will tie it like this to make sure it stays).[94] However, Chiac is not simply aFranglais/Frenglish mix of French and English, as it differs distinctly from other French-English mixed-use cases such as those found amongstFransaskois orOntarois.[95][96]
In British Columbia,Yukon and throughout thePacific Northwest, a pidgin language known as theChinook Jargon (also rendered "Chinook Wawa") emerged in the early 19th century that was a combination ofChinookan,Nootka,Chehalis, French and English, with a smattering of words from other languages includingHawaiian andSpanish.[97] Later in that century, it had creolized in the Pacific Northwest. Certain words and expressions remain current inlocal use, such asskookum,tyee, andsaltchuck, while a few have become part of worldwide English ("high mucketymuck" or "high muckamuck" for a high-ranking and perhaps self-important official).
Aportmanteau language which is said to combine English and French syntax, grammar and lexicons to form a uniqueinterlanguage, is sometimes ascribed to mandatory basic French education in the Canadian anglophone school systems. Many unilingual anglophone Canadians, for instance, will borrow French words into their sentences. Simple words and phrases like "C'est quoi ça?" (what is that?) or words like "arrête" (stop) can alternate with their English counterparts. This phenomenon is more common in theeastern half of the country where there is a greater density of Francophone populations.Franglais can also refer to the supposed degradation of the French language thanks to the overwhelming impact Canadian English has on the country's Francophone inhabitants, though many linguists would argue that while English vocabulary can be freely borrowed as a stylistic device, the grammar of French has been resistant to influences from English[98] and the same conservatism holds true in Canadian English grammar,[99] even in Quebec City.
A pidgin trade language based on Haida, known asHaida Jargon, was used in the 1830s in and aroundHaida Gwaii. It was used by speakers of English, Haida, Coast Tsimshian, Heiltsuk, and other languages.
As a result of cultural contact between theGwich'in (formerly called "Loucheaux") and Europeans (predominately Frenchcoureurs des bois andvoyageurs), a pidgin language was historically used acrossGwich'in Nành, Denendeh.[100] The language is often called in English "Jargon Loucheux" using the traditional French syntax.[101]
Michif (also known as Mitchif, Mechif, Michif-Cree, Métif, Métchif, and French Cree) is a mixed language which evolved within the PrairieMétis community that was oriented towards Cree and Franco-Catholic culture. It is based on elements of Cree and French along with elements ofOjibwa andAssiniboine. Michif is today spoken by fewer than 1,000 individuals in Saskatchewan, Manitoba andNorth Dakota. At its peak, around 1900, Michif was understood by perhaps three times this number.
Based in the late 18th and early 19th centuries and likely one precursor toChinook Wawa,Nootka Jargon was a trade language derived fromNuučaan̓uł, English, Spanish, and Russian, as well as other local languages.
Also known as "Broken Slavey," this language was spoken until the mid-1900s, abruptly diminishing due to the influx of English intoDenendeh andInuit Nunangat.[102] Documentation has also shown that the language was spoken by a range of fur traders, postmasters, and their wives, sisters, and daughters, who were often of Métis descent.[102] The native languages of speakers who used Slavey Jargon wereDenesuline, French,Gwich'in,Inuktitut, and the languages collectively known as "Slavey" (North: Sahtúgot’įné Yatı̨́, K’ashógot’įne Goxedǝ́, and Shíhgot’įne Yatı̨́; South: Dene Yatıé or Dene Zhatıé and Dené Dháh). TheDene,Inuit, French, British, and Métis who spoke the language did so predominately for preaching the gospel, teasing and harassing clergymen, and for interpersonal relationships.[102] The use of Slavey Jargon can be characterized as an innovation employed by speakers in order to meet several linguistic goals, such as introductions, advice, and disputes.[102] Mishler specified, "For all these reasons, Slavey Jargon seems inaccurate to characterize it strictly as a trade jargon" (p. 277).[102]
Spoken predominately in theLiard andDehcho Countries of Denendeh, the nouns of the language generally consisted of English, Dënësųłınë́ Yatıé, Sahtúgot’įné / Shíhgot’įne Yatı̨́ / K’ashógot’įne Goxedǝ́, and Dene Yatıé/Zhatıé, whereas the verbs and pronouns are derived from French. Adverbs are typically pulled from Dënësųłınë́ and Gwich’in. There is, however, a lot of variation in Slavey Jargon. Gwich’in verbs can be mixed with French nouns or phonemically modified French sentences exist.[102]
Spoken alongside the Basque/Breton–Inuit Belle Isle pidgin was anotherpidgin language that developed in the 16th century amongst theBasque in coastal areas along theGulf of Saint Lawrence and theStrait of Belle Isle as the result of contact betweenBasque whalers and localAlgonquian peoples, notably theMi'kmaq.[103] The name "Souriquois" has an obscure history and most likely refers to region aroundSouris and theBasque suffixkoa, perhaps fromzurikoa “that of the whites."[104]
Alongside the numerous and varied oral languages, Canada also boasts severalsign languages. Currently, Canada is home to some five or moresign languages (that number rising with the probability thatPlains Sign Talk is actually a language family with several languages under its umbrella), belonging to four to six distinctlanguage families, those being: theFrancosign family, theBANZSL family, thePlains Sign family, theInuit Sign isolate, perhaps theCoast Salish Sign isolate, and perhaps aPlateau Sign family composed ofSecwepemcékst andKtunaxa Sign Language.
As with all sign languages around the world that developed naturally, these are natural, human languages distinct from any oral language. As such,American Sign Language (unlikeSigned English) is no more a derivation of English than Russian is,[105] all being distinct languages from one another. Some languages present here weretrade pidgins which were used first as a system of communication across national and linguistic boundaries of First Nations, however, they have since developed into mature languages as children learned them as a first language.
The sign languages of Canada share extremely limited rights within the country in large due to the general population's misinformation on the subject. Ontario is the only province or territory to formally make legal any sign language, enabling the use of American Sign Language,Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) and "First Nation Sign Language" (which could refer to Plains Sign Talk,Oneida Sign Language, or any other language) in only the domains of education, legislation and judiciary proceedings.[106] The only other language afforded any other rights is Inuiuuk, which sees interpretation in theLegislative Assembly of Nunavut.[107] There have been efforts to make LSQ an official language of Quebec, but all efforts have failed.[108]
The most utilized sign language in Canada,American Sign Language or ASL, can be found across the country in mostly anglophone regions. The ties with anglophone Canada are not due to ASL and English's similarity, but to cultural similarities and linguistic history (as several ASL words are borrowed from English). As such, ASL can be found in areas where English is not the primary language, such asMontreal orNunavut. ASL is part of theFrench Sign Language (Francosign) family, originating on theEast Coast of the United States from a mix ofLangue des signes françaises (LSF) and other local languages.
Amongst theBlack communities of Canada,Black American Sign Language (BASL) is also spoken.[109]
There is evidence that Coast Salish citizens speak a distinct sign language.[83]
Hand Talk was the primary written language andlingua franca of North America.[110] It was used for all international relations, trade, and diplomacy across much of the continent untilcolonization.[111] across the continent and the language stretched across the provinces down through Mexico.[112] Its name comes from the language itself ("HANDS" + "TO-TALK-TO") and is preferred by Indigenous communities over other terms like "Plains Sign Language" or "First Nations Sign Languages". In fact, Hand Talk is a complex of several languages, with variants in the Northeast Woodlands, Great Basin, Southwest, and the Great Plains.[110] It is unknown ifPlateau Sign Language is related.
Born out of theOneida Nation, OSL is a mixed language, descended primarily from both Hand Talk and theOneida oral language, with some additions from ASL.[113] Onʌyota'a:ká (or Oneida) Sign Language is a young and growing language, spreading especially amongst deaf Oneida citizens.[114][83]
Inuit Sign Language, also known as Atgangmuurngniq or Uukturausingit, is a critically endangered language with some 50 speakers remaining. It is a language isolate and has only be found by researchers inNunavut; however, there are theories it extends across theArctic Circle.[84] Little is known about its history, but efforts are being made to document and revitalize the language.[115]
Maritime Sign Language is a BANZSL language. It was used as the language of education for Deaf populations inNova Scotia, New Brunswick, andPrince Edward Island before ASL became available in the mid-20th century. It is still remembered by some elderly people but ismoribund. The language, living alongside ASL, has produced a unique dialect of ASL inthe Maritimes due to mixing of the languages. The exact number of speakers is unknown.
Another international language,Plateau Sign Language was/is spoken in theColumbia Plateau and surrounding regions of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho instead of Plains Sign Talk. There are few speakers left, mostly Elders.
Calledʾa·qanⱡiⱡⱡitnam in theKtunaxa language,[116] Ktunaxa Sign Language has historically been spoken in Ktunaxa ɁamakaɁis (Ktunaxa Country).[117]
Perhaps related to or descended from the old Plateau Sign Language, Secwepemcékst or Secwépemc Sign Language is spoken by a small number ofSecwépemc citizens.[83]
Alongside ASL,Quebec Sign Language or LSQ (Langue des signes québécoise) is the second most spoken sign language in the country. Centred mainly around and within Quebec, LSQ can also be found in Ontario, New Brunswick and various other parts of the country, generally aroundfrancophone communities due to historical ties to the French language. Although approximately 10% of the population of Quebec is deaf or hard-of-hearing, it is estimated that only 50,000 to 60,000 children use LSQ as their native language. LSQ is part of the Francosign family with ASL. As such, both languages aremutually intelligible.
Spoken by the sawmill workers of BC, this sign language was used by predominately hearing staff during work hours and in socializing with co-workers.[118]
Acadian French is a unique form ofCanadian French which incorporates not only distinctly Canadian phrases but also nautical terms, Englishloanwords,linguistic features found only in older forms of French as well as ones found in theMaritimer English dialect.
A sub-dialect ofAcadian French, Brayon French is spoken by those inMadawaska County ofNew Brunswick. The language is a mix of Acadian and Quebec French with influence from the localMi'kmaw andMaliseet languages, with only slight differentiation from the more standard Acadian French.[119][120][121]
As the most spoken variety of French in Canada,Québec French contains a significant number of dialects, generally grouped in two: the "old" dialects of the territories at the time of theBritish conquest and the "new" dialects that arose post-conquest.
Around 1615 as thecoureurs des bois moved pastthe city of Quebec, those who settled inNdakinna (Abenaki land) developed unique features still found today, especially in theBois-Francs region South of theSt. Lawrence.
Originally the dialect of the French-speakingworking class inMontréal, the cultural renaissance connected to theQuiet Revolution have resulted in Joual being spoken by people across the educational and economic spectrum.
Possibly deriving from theAtikamekw word for "loon" (makwa; standard French:huard), the French spoken by the Magoua community is one of the most conservative French dialects in North America. Thisbasilectal dialect is found inNitaskinan as theTrois-Rivières region became the first stronghold of thecoureurs des bois outside thecity of Quebec in 1615. Magoua French preserves the sontaient ("étaient") characteristic of Métis French and Cajun French, has a creole-like past tense particle tà, and has old present-tense contraction of a former verb "to be" that behave in the same manner as subject clitics.
AlongsideMichif andBungi, theMétis dialect of French is one of the traditional languages of the Métis people, and the French-dialect source of the Michif language.[122] Métis French is a variety ofCanadian French with some added charactersÑñ,Áá,Óó, andÆæ (from older French spellings), such as:il ñá ócun nævus sur ce garçon English: "there is no birthmark on this boy."[56] There are also significant amounts of words loaned fromindigenous languages such asOjibwemowin,Dane-zaa Ẕáágéʔ (Beaver), and severalCree languages.[57] Like Michif, Métis French is spoken predominantly in Manitoba as well as adjacent provinces and US states.[123] As a general rule, Métis individuals tend to speak one or the other, rarely both.[55]
Tracing their origins to Continental French fishermen who settled in the late 1800s and early 1900s, rather than the Québécois, Newfoundland French (orfrançais terre-neuvien) refers to the French spoken on thePort au Port Peninsula (part of the so-called “French Shore”) of Newfoundland. Some Acadians of the Maritimes also settled in the area. For this reason, Newfoundland French is most closely related to theBreton andNorman French of nearbySt-Pierre-et-Miquelon. Today, heavy contact with Acadian French—and especially widespread bilingualism with Newfoundland English—have taken their toll, and the community is in decline. The degree to which lexical features of Newfoundland French constitute a distinct dialect is not presently known. It is uncertain how many speakers survive; the dialect could bemoribund. There is a provincial advocacy organisationFédération des Francophones de Terre-Neuve et du Labrador, representing both the Peninsular French and Acadian French communities.
Although quite similar to Quebec French, the dialect of the Ontarois or Franco-Ontarians maintains distinctive features. These include the progressive disappearance of thesubjunctive, the transfer of rules from English to French, e.g., "J’ai vu un film sur/à la télévision" which comes from "I saw a film on television", and the loaning of English conjunctions such as "so" força fait que oralors.
In what is also called Black Canadian, Afro-Canadian, or African Canadian English, there exist several varieties of English spoken byBlack Canadians. The most well-established is the dialect spoken byAfro-Nova Scotians.[124] In places like Toronto where there is a large population ofAfro-Caribbean descendants and newcomers, localized varieties of Black English take on elements ofCaribbean English, as well as mixing withAfrican-American Vernacular English (AAVE). Although AAVE is not nearly as widespread in Canada as it is across the United States, Black Canadians have various lines of connection to the dialect. Sometimes that connection is historical, such as with Black Nova Scotians; sometimes it is hegemonic, where Afro-Canadians adopt speech mannerisms from the larger United States; sometimes it isdiasporic, where communities of African-American newcomers or African-American descendants coalesce, especially in larger cities.
African Nova Scotian English is spoken by descendants ofBlack Nova Scotians, black immigrants from theUnited States. Though mostAfrican American freedom seekers in Canada ended up in Ontario through theUnderground Railroad, only the dialect of African Nova Scotians retains the influence of West African pidgin.[125] In the 19th century, African Nova Scotian English would have been indistinguishable from English spoken inJamaica orSuriname.[126] However, it has been increasingly de-creolized since this time, due to interaction and influence from the white Nova Scotian population.Desegregation of the province's school boards in 1964 further accelerated the process of de-creolization. The language is a relative of theAfrican-American Vernacular English, with significant variations unique to the group's history in the area.[127][128] There are noted differences in the dialects of those fromGuysborough County (Black Loyalists), and those fromNorth Preston (Black Refugees), the Guysborough group having been in the province three generations earlier.[128]
Howe and Walker use data from early recordings of African Nova Scotian English,Samaná English, and the recordings of former slaves to demonstrate that speech patterns were inherited from nonstandard colonial English.[129] The dialect was extensively studied in 1992 by Shana Poplack and Sali Tagliamonte from the University of Ottawa.[128]
A commonality between African Nova Scotian English and African-American Vernacular English is(r)-deletion. This rate of deletion is 57% among Black Nova Scotians, and 60% among African Americans in Philadelphia. Meanwhile, in the surrounding mostly white communities of Nova Scotia, (r)-deletion does not occur.[130]
The English language in British Columbia shares numerous features with the neighbouring states ofWashington andOregon, such as the /æɡ/ raising (found words such as bag, vague and bagel). Boreal Cascadian English speakers exhibit more vowel retraction of /æ/ before nasals than people from Toronto, and younger speakers in the Greater Vancouver area do not raise /aʊ/ as much, but keep the drop in intonation, causing "about" to sound slightly like "a baht." The "o" in such words as holy, goal, load, know, etc. is pronounced as a close-mid back rounded vowel, [o], but not as rounded as in the Prairies where there are strong Scandinavian, Slavic and German influences, which can lend to a more stereotypical "Canadian" accent.
The varieties of English spoken byindigenous people arephonologically influenced by their first or traditional languages. This has resulted in an identifiable dialect spectrum distinct from other Canadian English dialects. Due to the ongoingstigmatization of indigenous cultures, indigenous children could be wrongly diagnosed as having a speech impairment or a learning disability, when what is identified by medical professionals are simply the dialectal features.[131]
Some written works use indigenous English dialects. For example,Maria Campbell's bookStories of the Road Allowance People is a collection of Métis folktales. An excerpt from that work illustrates the type of speech used by Elders in rural Métis communities during her research, but some stories were collected in Cree or other languages and translated into dialectical English by Campbell:
Dere wasen very much he can steal from dah table anyways
'cept da knives and forks.
An Margareet he knowed he wouldn dare take dem
cause dat woman you know
hees gots a hell of a repetation for being a hardheaded woman
when he gets mad.
Dat man he have to be a damn fool to steal from hees table.
— Dah Teef[132]
Spoken inLunenburg andLunenburg County, Nova Scotia, thismoribund dialect is sometimes called "Lunenburg Dutch" due to its rooting in the largeKurpfalzisch andWürttembergisch population who settled the town. Although the German language subsided significantly, the English of the town and county continue to be marked by its influence. Indeed, the pronunciation in Lunenburg county is the only Canadian community to benon-rhotic. The accent features Canadian raising and so flight [ˈflʌɪt] has a different vowel from fly [ˈflɑɪ], and the noun house [ˈhoʊs] has a different vowel from the verb house [ˈhɑʊz]. In Lunenburg, the phraseabout a boat contains two identical stressed and two identical unstressed vowels: /əˌboʊt ə ˈboʊt/, rather than the Standard Canadian English /əˌbaʊt ə ˈboʊt/, with distinct stressed vowels. Due to German influence, there is a tendency to pronounce /w/ inwitch the same as /v/ as invan. Another example is the lack of the dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/, which are replaced by the alveolar stops /t/ and /d/ (rendering "thank" and "tank" homophonous as /ˈtæŋk/), and the "t" at the end of words is usually silent: "get" becomes "ge."
For example, here is a sample of a conversation between two people:
"De kids vere over der in da woods, gettin inda dis an dat."
"Dey never did?"
"Yeah, an now dey gone da get some of dem der apples you see."
"You don't say?"
"No foolin, dey over der now."
"Dey brung some of dem apples over heera da day before."
"Oh, dey vere some good eatin I bet."
"Now look, you make no nevermind, dose vere da best apples I ever did have, dey vas some good."
"Oh, here dey come now, dey bedda know da wash der feet off."
Spoken across the provinces ofNova Scotia,New Brunswick, andPEI, this English dialect has been influenced byBritish andIrish English,Irish andScottish Gaelic, and some Acadian French, as well as byMi'kmawi'simk.
The initial European settlers to Newfoundland were fishermen from the various coastal villages of the EnglishWest Country of Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Bristol, and Wiltshire beginning in the 1500s (previously they visited in summer and returned). This set the basic speech patterns for those settlers who fanned out into isolated coves and bays along the island's 9,700 km (6,000 mi) of coastline to take advantage of the scattered off-shore fishing areas.Labrador, today the greater part of "Newfoundland", was then sparsely settled. The West Country dialects continued to be spoken in isolated coves and fjords of the island thus preserving varied dialects of what is today referred to asNewfoundland English.
It was not until the 1700s that social disruptions in Ireland sent thousands of Irish from the southeastern counties of Waterford, Wexford, Kilkenny, and Cork and to the Avalon peninsula in the eastern part of Newfoundland where significant Irish influence on the Newfoundland dialects may still be heard.
Some of the Irish immigrants toNewfoundland were native speakers ofIrish making Newfoundland the only place outside Europe to haveits own Irish dialect. Newfoundland was also the only place outside Europe to have its own distinct name in Irish:Talamh an Éisc, which means 'land of the fish'. The Irish language is now extinct in Newfoundland.
After 400 years, much of the dialectal differences between the isolated settlements has levelled out beginning in the 20th century when faster boats (using gas engines instead of oars or sails), and improved road connections provided easier social contact. As well, influences from mainland North America began to affect the local dialects beginning during WWII when US and Canadian servicemen were stationed in Newfoundland and accelerating after Newfoundland became a Canadian province in 1949. Lack of an official orthography, publications in dialect, speaker attrition and official disinterest in promoting the language has been contributing factors towards a decline of speakers of the older, traditional Newfoundland English in the original settlements.
Ottawa Valley Twang is theaccent, sometimes referred to as adialect of English, that is spoken in theOttawa Valley, in Ontario.[133] The Ottawa Valley is considered to be alinguisticenclave within Ontario.[134]
The language ofEnglish-speaking Quebecers generally aligns toStandard Canadian English, however established ethnic groups retain certain, distinctive lexical features, such as the dialects spoken byMohawk,Cree,Inuit, Irish, Jewish, Italian, and Greek communities. Isolated fishing villages on theBasse-Côte-Nord speak Newfoundland English, and manyGaspesian English-speakers use Maritime English.
Spoken within theGreater Toronto Area,Toronto slang is the nuanced, multicultural English spoken in the city. This dialect is heavily influenced by the different communities present, most notably the Jamaican, Trinidadian, Guyanese, and other Caribbean communities and their ways of speaking. There is also influence from West African, East African, and South Asian communities.
Canadian Gaelic was spoken by many immigrants who settled inGlengarry County (Ontario) andthe Maritimes—predominantly in New Brunswick'sRestigouche River valley, central and southeastern Prince Edward Island, and across the whole of northern Nova Scotia—particularlyCape Breton. While theCanadian Gaelic dialect has mostly disappeared, regional pockets persist. These are mostly centred on families deeply committed to their Celtic traditions. Nova Scotia currently has 500–1,000 fluent speakers, mostly in northwestern Cape Breton. There have been attempts in Nova Scotia to institute Gaelic immersion on the model ofFrench immersion. As well, formal post-secondary studies in Gaelic language and culture are available throughSt. Francis Xavier University,Saint Mary's University, andCape Breton University
In 1890, a private member's bill was tabled in theCanadian Senate, calling for Gaelic to be made Canada's thirdofficial language. However, the bill was defeated 42–7.
Newfoundland is home to the largest population of Irish-descendants in Canada and once hosted a thrivingIrish Gaelic linguistic community. Although steep declines around the 20th century meant that the Irish language on the Island hardly remains, there exists today strong interest with consistent efforts to revive the language.
Newfoundland Irish has left an impact on the English spoken on the Island, including terms likescrob "scratch" (Irishscríob),sleveen "rascal" (Irishslíbhín) andstreel "slovenly person" (Irishsraoill), along with grammatical features like the"after" perfect as in "she's already after leavin'" (Irishtá sí tar éis imeacht).[135] As well, both Newfoundland (Talamh an Éisc,Land of the Fish)[136] andSt. John's (Baile Sheáin)[137] have distinct names in theIrish-language. The dialect of Irish spoken in Newfoundland is said to resemble theMunster Irish of the 18th century.
Events and institutions are increasingly supporting the language with ever largerCéilithe móra, students participating inConradh na Gaeilge events, people playingGaelic sports, and Irish film festivals attracting English- and Irish-speakers alike. There is also an Irish language instructor, appointed every year by the Ireland Canada University Foundation, who works atMemorial University inSt. John's,[138] where the university's Digital Learning Centre provides resources for learning the Irish language.[139]
SomeWelsh is found in Newfoundland. In part, this is as a result of Welsh settlement since the 17th century. Also, there was an influx of about 1,000Patagonian Welsh, who migrated to Canada fromArgentina after the 1982Falklands War. Welsh-Argentines are fluent in Spanish as well as English and Welsh.
Canada is also home toCanadian Ukrainian, a distinct dialect of theUkrainian language, spoken mostly inWestern Canada by the descendants of first two waves ofUkrainian settlement in Canada who developed in a degree of isolation from their cousins in what was thenAustria-Hungary, theRussian Empire,Poland, and theSoviet Union.
Canada'sDoukhobor community, especially inGrand Forks andCastlegar, British Columbia, has kept itsdistinct dialect ofRussian. It has a lot in common withSouth Russian dialects, showing some common features with Ukrainian. This dialect's versions are becoming extinct in their home regions ofGeorgia andRussia where the Doukhobors have split into smaller groups.
A variety ofWest Central German spoken by theOld Order Amish,Old Order Mennonites and other descendants ofGerman immigrants in Canada,Pennsylvania Dutch orDeitsch is closely related to thePalatine dialects of theUpper Rhine Valley.[140] Of the estimated 300,000 speakers, most are found across several US states, whilst there is a sizable community within Ontario.[141]
Centred in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, theHutterite communities maintain adistinct form of theGerman language descended fromBavarian dialects spoken inTyrol (by founderJacob Hutter). The language shifted in the mid-18th century toward a moreCarinthian linguistic base upon the deportation ofLandler fromAustria toTransylvania. There is only about a 50% intelligibility betweenPennsylvania Dutch speakers andHutterisch.[142] Its speaker base belongs to theSchmiedleit,Lehrerleit, andDariusleit groups with a few speakers among the older generations ofPrairieleit (the descendants of those Hutterites who chose not to settle in colonies). Hutterite children who grow up in the colonies first learn and speak Hutterisch before learning English. Of the estimated 34,000 speakers in the world (as of 2003), 85% of them live in 370 communities in Canada.[143] Canadian adults are generally literate inEarly New High German (also called "Biblical German", the predecessor to Standard German used byMartin Luther) that they employ as the written form for Scriptures, however Hutterisch is, for the most part, an unwritten language.[144]
Plautdietsch is predominantly found in Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario whereMennonite communities settled. The Mennonites, orRussian Mennonites as they are sometimes called, descend fromLow countryAnabaptists who fled from what is today the Netherlands and Belgium in the 16th century to escape persecution andresettled in the Vistula delta.[145] Their language is a fusion ofDutch,West Frisian andDutch Low Saxon dialects which over time mixed with theEast Low German dialects ofWerdersch,Nehrungisch andWeichselisch.[146]
English and French have equal status in federal courts, theParliament of Canada, as well as in all federal institutions.
The public has the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French. Immigrants who are applying forCanadian citizenship must normally be able to speak either English or French.
The principles of bilingualism in Canada are protected insections 16 to23 of theCanadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms of 1982 which establishes that:
Canada'sOfficial Languages Act, first adopted in 1969 and updated in 1988, gives English and French equal status throughout federal institutions.
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Canada's three territories have all given official status to more than one language. In the case of New Brunswick, this means perfect equality. In the other cases, the recognition sometimes amounts to a formal recognition of official languages, but limited services in official languages other than English.
The official languages are:
Until 1969, Quebec was the only officially bilingual province in Canada and most public institutions functioned in both languages. English was also used in the legislature, government commissions and courts. With the adoption of theCharter of the French Language (also known as "Bill 101") by Quebec'sNational Assembly in August 1977, however, French became Quebec's sole official language. However, theCharter of the French Language enumerates a defined set of language rights for the English language and for Aboriginal languages, and government services are available, to certain citizens and in certain regions, in English. As well, a series of court decisions have forced theQuebec government to increase its English-language services beyond those provided for under the original terms of theCharter of the French Language. Regional institutions in theNunavik region ofnorthern Quebec offer services in Inuktitut and Cree.
Most provinces have laws that make either English or both English and French the official language(s) of the legislature and the courts but may also have separate policies in regards to education and the bureaucracy.
For example, inAlberta, English and French are both official languages of debate in theLegislative Assembly, but laws may be drafted solely in English and there is no legal requirement that they be translated into French. French can be used in some lower courts and education is offered in both languages, but the bureaucracy functions almost solely in English. Therefore, although Alberta is not officially an English-only province, English has a higherde facto status than French. Ontario and Manitoba are similar but allow for more services in French at the local level.[citation needed]
The following table details the population of each province and territory, with summary national totals, by mother tongue as reported in the Canada 2016 Census.
| Province/territory | Total population | English | % | French | % | Other languages | % | Official language(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ontario | 13,312,870 | 9,255,660 | 69.52% | 568,345 | 4.27% | 3,865,780 | 29.04% | English (de facto)[148] |
| Quebec | 8,066,555 | 718,985 | 8.91% | 6,377,080 | 79.06% | 1,173,345 | 14.54% | French[6] |
| British Columbia | 4,598,415 | 3,271,425 | 71.14% | 71,705 | 1.56% | 1,360,815 | 29.59% | English (de facto) |
| Alberta | 4,026,650 | 3,080,865 | 76.51% | 86,705 | 2.15% | 952,790 | 23.66% | English |
| Manitoba | 1,261,615 | 931,410 | 73.83% | 46,055 | 3.65% | 316,120 | 25.06% | English |
| Saskatchewan | 1,083,240 | 910,865 | 84.09% | 17,735 | 1.64% | 173,475 | 16.01% | English |
| Nova Scotia | 912,300 | 838,055 | 91.86% | 33,345 | 3.66% | 49,165 | 5.39% | English (de facto)[a] |
| New Brunswick | 736,280 | 481,690 | 65.42% | 238,865 | 32.44% | 25,165 | 3.42% | English, French |
| Newfoundland and Labrador | 515,680 | 501,350 | 97.22% | 3,020 | 0.59% | 13,035 | 2.53% | English (de facto) |
| Prince Edward Island | 141,020 | 128,975 | 91.46% | 5,395 | 3.83% | 7,670 | 5.44% | English (de facto) |
| Northwest Territories | 41,380 | 32,545 | 78.65% | 1,365 | 3.30% | 8,295 | 20.05% | Cree, Dënësųłıné, Dene Yatıé / Zhatıé,[nb 3] English, French, Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, Sahtúgot’įné Yatı̨́ / K’ashógot’įne Goxedǝ́ / Shíhgot’įne Yatı̨́,[nb 3] Tłįchǫ[9] |
| Yukon | 35,555 | 29,765 | 83.72% | 1,815 | 5.10% | 4,665 | 13.12% | English, French |
| Nunavut | 35,695 | 11,745 | 32.90% | 640 | 1.79% | 24,050 | 67.38% | Inuit Language (Inuktitut, Inuinnaqtun), English, French[147] |
| Canada | 34,767,255 | 20,193,340 | 58.08% | 7,452,075 | 21.43% | 7,974,375 | 22.94% | English, French |
| Language | Percent | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| English | 87.06% | |||
| French | 29.08% | |||
| Chinese[c] | 4.21% | |||
| Hindustani[d] | 3.24% | |||
| Spanish | 3.22% | |||
| Punjabi | 2.59% | |||
| Arabic | 2.31% | |||
| Tagalog | 2.03% | |||
| Italian | 1.51% | |||
| German | 1.15% | |||
The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses, and first appeared on the1991 Canadian census.[e] The following figures are from the 1991 Canadian census,2001 Canadian census,2011 Canadian census, and the2021 Canadian census.
| Language | 2021[150] | 2011[151] | 2001[149][152] | 1991[153] | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | |
| English | 31,628,570 | 87.06% | 28,360,235[154] | 85.63% | 25,246,220[155] | 85.18% | 22,505,415 | 83.37% |
| French | 10,563,235 | 29.08% | 9,960,585[154] | 30.07% | 9,178,100[155] | 30.97% | 8,508,960 | 31.52% |
| Chinese[c] | 1,528,860 | 4.21% | 1,297,505 | 3.92% | 1,028,445 | 3.47% | 557,305 | 2.06% |
| Hindustani[d] | 1,176,295 | 3.24% | 576,165 | 1.74% | 366,740 | 1.24% | 163,930 | 0.61% |
| Spanish | 1,171,450 | 3.22% | 873,395 | 2.64% | 610,580 | 2.06% | 402,430 | 1.49% |
| Punjabi | 942,170 | 2.59% | 545,730 | 1.65% | 338,720 | 1.14% | 167,925 | 0.62% |
| Arabic | 838,045 | 2.31% | 470,965 | 1.42% | 290,280 | 0.98% | 164,380 | 0.61% |
| Tagalog | 737,565 | 2.03% | 491,075 | 1.48% | 244,690 | 0.83% | 136,975 | 0.51% |
| Italian | 547,655 | 1.51% | 595,600 | 1.8% | 680,970 | 2.3% | 701,910 | 2.6% |
| German | 419,195 | 1.15% | 525,480 | 1.59% | 635,520 | 2.14% | 684,955 | 2.54% |
| Portuguese | 336,865 | 0.93% | 266,950 | 0.81% | 264,990 | 0.89% | 254,465 | 0.94% |
| Persian[f] | 330,725 | 0.91% | 196,110 | 0.59% | 111,700 | 0.38% | 49,380 | 0.18% |
| Russian | 309,235 | 0.85% | 230,755 | 0.7% | 157,455 | 0.53% | 84,050 | 0.31% |
| Tamil | 237,890 | 0.65% | 179,465 | 0.54% | 111,580 | 0.38% | 37,330 | 0.14% |
| Vietnamese | 232,800 | 0.64% | 192,070 | 0.58% | 165,645 | 0.56% | 113,115 | 0.42% |
| Gujarati | 209,410 | 0.58% | 118,950 | 0.36% | 80,835 | 0.27% | 54,210 | 0.2% |
| Polish | 204,460 | 0.56% | 217,735 | 0.66% | 249,695 | 0.84% | 239,575 | 0.89% |
| Korean | 203,885 | 0.56% | 149,035 | 0.45% | 91,610 | 0.31% | 40,230 | 0.15% |
| Serbo-Croatian[g] | 155,775 | 0.43% | 154,700 | 0.47% | 153,085 | 0.52% | 100,541 | 0.37% |
| Greek | 145,060 | 0.4% | 150,620 | 0.45% | 158,800 | 0.54% | 161,320 | 0.6% |
| Haitian Creole | 134,895 | 0.37% | 128,555 | 0.39% | 76,140 | 0.26% | 49,970 | 0.19% |
| Ukrainian | 131,655 | 0.36% | 144,260 | 0.44% | 200,520 | 0.68% | 249,535 | 0.92% |
| Bengali | 120,605 | 0.33% | 69,490 | 0.21% | 34,650 | 0.12% | N/A | <0.1% |
| Romanian | 116,520 | 0.32% | 97,180 | 0.29% | 60,520 | 0.2% | 30,520 | 0.11% |
| Dutch | 107,985 | 0.3% | 135,085 | 0.41% | 157,875 | 0.53% | 173,290 | 0.64% |
| Cree[h] | 105,850 | 0.29% | 96,690 | 0.29% | 97,200 | 0.33% | 93,825 | 0.35% |
| Japanese | 98,070 | 0.27% | 74,690 | 0.23% | 65,030 | 0.22% | 45,370 | 0.17% |
| Hebrew | 83,205 | 0.23% | 70,695 | 0.21% | 63,675 | 0.21% | 52,450 | 0.19% |
| Turkish | 78,500 | 0.22% | 44,080 | 0.13% | 32,520 | 0.11% | N/A | <0.1% |
| Malayalam | 77,910 | 0.21% | 22,125 | 0.07% | 9,185 | 0.03% | N/A | <0.1% |
| Hungarian | 64,625 | 0.18% | 73,695 | 0.22% | 89,230 | 0.3% | 97,410 | 0.36% |
| Ilocano | 61,680 | 0.17% | 21,880 | 0.07% | N/A | <0.03% | N/A | <0.1% |
| Somali | 59,005 | 0.16% | 37,115 | 0.11% | N/A | <0.03% | N/A | <0.1% |
| Swahili | 57,295 | 0.16% | 31,690 | 0.1% | 25,300 | 0.09% | N/A | <0.1% |
| Telugu | 54,685 | 0.15% | 12,645 | 0.04% | N/A | <0.03% | N/A | <0.1% |
| Language | 2021[156] | 2016[157] | 2011[154] | 2006[158] | 2001[149][155] | 1996[159] | 1991[160] | 1981[161][162] | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | |
| English total | 31,628,570 | 87.06% | 29,973,590 | 86.21% | 28,360,235 | 85.63% | 26,578,795 | 85.08% | 25,246,220 | 85.18% | 23,975,565 | 84.04% | 22,505,415 | 83.37% | 19,804,855 | 82.23% |
| French total | 10,563,235 | 29.08% | 10,360,750 | 29.8% | 9,960,585 | 30.07% | 9,590,700 | 30.7% | 9,178,100 | 30.97% | 8,920,405 | 31.27% | 8,508,960 | 31.52% | 7,669,205 | 31.84% |
| English only | 25,261,655 | 69.54% | 23,757,525 | 68.33% | 22,564,665 | 68.13% | 21,129,945 | 67.64% | 20,014,645 | 67.53% | 19,134,245 | 67.07% | 18,106,760 | 67.08% | 16,122,895 | 66.95% |
| French only | 4,087,895 | 11.25% | 4,144,685 | 11.92% | 4,165,015 | 12.58% | 4,141,850 | 13.26% | 3,946,525 | 13.32% | 4,079,085 | 14.3% | 4,110,305 | 15.23% | 3,987,245 | 16.56% |
| English & French | 6,581,680 | 18.12% | 6,216,065 | 17.88% | 5,795,570 | 17.5% | 5,448,850 | 17.44% | 5,231,575 | 17.65% | 4,841,320 | 16.97% | 4,398,655 | 16.29% | 3,681,960 | 15.29% |
| NeitherEnglish norFrench | 689,725 | 1.9% | 648,970 | 1.87% | 595,920 | 1.8% | 520,385 | 1.67% | 446,285 | 1.51% | 473,475 | 1.66% | 378,320 | 1.4% | 291,395 | 1.21% |
| Language | Percent | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| English | 57.8% | |||
| Non-official | 21.1% | |||
| French | 20.6% | |||
| English and French | 0.5% | |||
| First language | 2016 | 2011 | 2006 | Notes | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | ||
| Single language responses | 33,947,610 | 97.64% | 32,481,635 | 98.07% | 30,848,270 | 98.74% | |
| Official languages | 26,627,545 | 76.59% | 25,913,955 | 78.24% | 24,700,425 | 79.06% | |
| English | 19,460,855 | 55.97% | 18,858,980 | 56.94% | 17,882,775 | 57.24% | |
| French | 7,166,700 | 20.61% | 7,054,975 | 21.3% | 6,817,650 | 21.82% | |
| Non-official languages | 7,321,070 | 21.06% | 6,567,680 | 19.83% | 6,147,840 | 19.68% | |
| Combined Chinese Responses | 1,227,680 | 3.53% | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | Combined responses of Mandarin, Cantonese, Chinese n.o.s. and Min Nan |
| Mandarin (Standard Chinese) | 592,035 | 1.7% | 248,705 | 0.75% | 170,950 | 0.55% | |
| Cantonese | 565,275 | 1.63% | 372,460 | 1.12% | 361,450 | 1.16% | |
| Punjabi | 501,680 | 1.44% | 430,705 | 1.3% | 367,505 | 1.18% | |
| Spanish | 458,850 | 1.32% | 410,670 | 1.24% | 345,345 | 1.11% | |
| Tagalog (Filipino) | 431,385 | 1.24% | 327,445 | 0.99% | 235,615 | 0.75% | |
| Arabic | 419,895 | 1.21% | 327,870 | 0.99% | 261,640 | 0.84% | |
| German | 384,040 | 1.1% | 409,200 | 1.24% | 450,570 | 1.44% | |
| Italian | 375,645 | 1.08% | 407,485 | 1.23% | 455,040 | 1.46% | |
| Hindustani | 321,465 | 0.92% | 263,345 | 0.8% | 224,045 | 0.72% | Combined responses of Hindi and Urdu |
| Portuguese | 221,535 | 0.64% | 211,335 | 0.64% | 219,275 | 0.7% | |
| Persian (Farsi) | 214,200 | 0.62% | 170,045 | 0.51% | 134,080 | 0.43% | |
| Urdu | 210,820 | 0.61% | 172,800 | 0.52% | 145,805 | 0.47% | |
| Russian | 188,255 | 0.54% | 164,330 | 0.5% | 133,580 | 0.43% | |
| Polish | 181,705 | 0.52% | 191,645 | 0.58% | 211,175 | 0.68% | |
| Vietnamese | 156,430 | 0.45% | 144,880 | 0.44% | 141,625 | 0.45% | |
| Korean | 153,425 | 0.44% | 137,925 | 0.42% | 125,570 | 0.4% | |
| Tamil | 140,720 | 0.4% | 131,265 | 0.4% | 115,880 | 0.37% | Most of theCanadian Tamils live in Toronto. |
| Hindi | 110,645 | 0.32% | 90,545 | 0.27% | 78,240 | 0.25% | |
| Gujarati | 108,775 | 0.31% | 91,450 | 0.28% | 81,465 | 0.26% | |
| Greek | 106,520 | 0.31% | 108,925 | 0.33% | 117,285 | 0.38% | |
| Ukrainian | 102,485 | 0.29% | 111,540 | 0.34% | 134,500 | 0.43% | |
| Dutch | 99,015 | 0.28% | 110,490 | 0.33% | 128,900 | 0.41% | |
| Romanian | 96,660 | 0.28% | 90,300 | 0.27% | 78,495 | 0.25% | |
| Bengali | 73,125 | 0.21% | 59,370 | 0.18% | 45,685 | 0.15% | |
| Creoles | 72,130 | 0.21% | 61,725 | 0.19% | 53,515 | 0.17% | |
| Cree, n.o.s.[nb 7] | 64,045 | 0.18% | 77,900 | 0.24% | 78,855 | 0.25% | In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to simply as 'Cree'. |
| Hungarian | 61,235 | 0.18% | 67,920 | 0.21% | 73,335 | 0.23% | The majority ofHungarian speakers in Canada live in Ontario. A community of Hungarian speakers is found within a part ofWindsor, Ontario. |
| Berber languages (Kabyle) | n/a | n/a | 57,855 | 0.17% | 25,578 | 0.08% | |
| Serbian | 57,345 | 0.16% | 56,420 | 0.17% | 51,665 | 0.17% | |
| Croatian | 48,200 | 0.14% | 49,730 | 0.15% | 55,330 | 0.18% | |
| Japanese | 43,640 | 0.13% | 39,985 | 0.12% | 40,200 | 0.13% | |
| Chinese, n.o.s.[nb 7] | 38,575 | 0.11% | 425,210 | 1.28% | 456,705 | 1.46% | |
| Somali | 36,760 | 0.11% | 31,380 | 0.09% | 27,320 | 0.09% | |
| Inuktitut | 35,215 | 0.1% | 33,500 | 0.1% | 32,015 | 0.1% | In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Inuktitut, n.i.e.'.[nb 8] |
| Armenian | 33,455 | 0.1% | 29,795 | 0.09% | 30,130 | 0.1% | |
| Turkish | 32,815 | 0.09% | 29,640 | 0.09% | 24,745 | 0.08% | |
| Min Nan (Chaochow,Teochow, Fukien, Taiwanese) | 31,795 | 0.09% | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | |
| Malayalam | 28,570 | 0.08% | 16,080 | 0.05% | 11,925 | 0.04% | |
| Albanian | 26,895 | 0.08% | 23,820 | 0.07% | n/a | n/a | |
| Ilocano | 26,345 | 0.08% | 17,915 | 0.05% | 13,450 | 0.04% | |
| Amharic | 22,465 | 0.06% | 18,020 | 0.05% | 14,555 | 0.05% | |
| Czech | 22,295 | 0.06% | 23,585 | 0.07% | 24,450 | 0.08% | |
| Khmer (Cambodian) | 20,130 | 0.06% | 19,440 | 0.06% | 19,105 | 0.06% | |
| Bulgarian | 20,020 | 0.06% | 19,050 | 0.06% | 16,790 | 0.05% | |
| Hebrew | 19,530 | 0.06% | 18,450 | 0.06% | 17,635 | 0.06% | |
| Niger–Congo languages, n.i.e.[nb 8] | 19,140 | 0.06% | 14,075 | 0.04% | n/a | n/a | |
| Nepali | 18,275 | 0.05% | 8,480 | 0.03% | n/a | n/a | |
| Ojibway | 17,885 | 0.05% | 17,625 | 0.05% | 24,190 | 0.08% | |
| Slovak | 17,585 | 0.05% | 17,580 | 0.05% | 18,820 | 0.06% | |
| Pashto | 16,910 | 0.05% | 12,465 | 0.04% | 9,025 | 0.03% | |
| Macedonian | 16,770 | 0.05% | 17,245 | 0.05% | 18,435 | 0.06% | |
| Tigrigna | 16,650 | 0.05% | 10,220 | 0.03% | 7,105 | 0.02% | |
| Sinhala | 16,335 | 0.05% | 14,185 | 0.04% | 10,180 | 0.03% | |
| Bisayan languages | n/a | n/a | 16,240 | 0.05% | 11,240 | 0.04% | |
| Telugu | 15,655 | 0.05% | 9,315 | 0.03% | 6,625 | 0.02% | |
| Finnish | 15,295 | 0.04% | 17,415 | 0.05% | 21,030 | 0.07% | |
| Yiddish | 13,555 | 0.04% | 15,205 | 0.05% | 16,295 | 0.05% | |
| Akan (Twi) | 13,460 | 0.04% | 12,680 | 0.04% | 12,780 | 0.04% | |
| Swahili | 13,375 | 0.04% | 10,090 | 0.03% | 7,935 | 0.03% | |
| Wu (Shanghainese) | 12,920 | 0.04% | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | |
| Oji-Cree | 12,855 | 0.04% | 9,835 | 0.03% | 11,690 | 0.04% | |
| Lao | 12,670 | 0.04% | 12,970 | 0.04% | 13,940 | 0.04% | |
| Danish | 12,630 | 0.04% | 14,145 | 0.04% | 18,735 | 0.06% | |
| Malay | 12,275 | 0.04% | 10,910 | 0.03% | 9,490 | 0.03% | |
| Bosnian | 12,210 | 0.04% | 11,685 | 0.04% | 12,790 | 0.04% | |
| Sindhi | 11,860 | 0.03% | 11,330 | 0.03% | 10,355 | 0.03% | |
| Kurdish | 11,705 | 0.03% | 9,805 | 0.03% | 7,660 | 0.02% | |
| Hakka | 10,910 | 0.03% | 5,115 | 0.02% | n/a | n/a | |
| Dene, n.o.s.[nb 7] | 10,700 | 0.03% | 11,215 | 0.03% | 9,745 | 0.03% | |
| Afrikaans | 10,260 | 0.03% | 8,770 | 0.03% | n/a | n/a | |
| Montagnais (Innu) | 10,230 | 0.03% | 10,785 | 0.03% | 10,975 | 0.04% | In the 2006 Census, this language was referred to as 'Montagnais-Naskapi'. |
| Slovenian | 9,785 | 0.03% | 10,775 | 0.03% | 13,135 | 0.04% | |
| Taiwanese | n/a | n/a | 9,635 | 0.03% | 9,620 | 0.03% | |
| Serbo-Croatian | 9,555 | 0.03% | 10,155 | 0.03% | 12,510 | 0.04% | All varieties of Serbo-Croatian (Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian) combined would enumerate a total of 127,310 speakers (0.37% of total population). |
| African languages, n.i.e.[nb 8] | n/a | n/a | 9,125 | 0.03% | n/a | n/a | |
| Thai | 9,255 | 0.03% | 7,935 | 0.02% | n/a | n/a | |
| Marathi | 8,295 | 0.02% | 5,830 | 0.02% | n/a | n/a | |
| Bantu languages, n.i.e.[nb 8] | n/a | n/a | 7,150 | 0.02% | n/a | n/a | |
| Lithuanian | 7,075 | 0.02% | 7,245 | 0.02% | 8,335 | 0.03% | |
| Swedish | 6,840 | 0.02% | 7,350 | 0.02% | 8,220 | 0.03% | |
| Mi'kmaq | 6,690 | 0.02% | 7,635 | 0.02% | 7,365 | 0.02% | |
| Tibetan | 6,165 | 0.02% | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | |
| Atikamekw | 6,150 | 0.02% | 5,820 | 0.02% | 5,250 | 0.02% | |
| Canadian Gaelic | n/a | n/a | 6,015 | 0.02% | 6,015 | 0.02% | |
| Fukien (Fuzhou dialect) | n/a | n/a | 5,925 | 0.02% | n/a | n/a | |
| Rundi (Kirundi) | 5,845 | 0.02% | 3,975 | 0.01% | n/a | n/a | |
| Maltese | 5,565 | 0.02% | 6,220 | 0.02% | 6,405 | 0.02% | |
| Estonian | 5,445 | 0.02% | 6,385 | 0.02% | 8,240 | 0.03% | |
| Latvian | 5,455 | 0.02% | 6,200 | 0.02% | 7,000 | 0.02% | |
| Kinyarwanda (Rwanda) | 5,250 | 0.02% | 3,895 | 0.01% | n/a | n/a | |
| Indo-Iranian languages, n.i.e.[nb 8] | 5,180 | 0.01% | 5,255 | 0.02% | n/a | n/a | |
| Oromo | 4,960 | 0.01% | 11,140 | 0.03% | n/a | n/a | |
| Norwegian | 4,615 | 0.01% | 5,800 | 0.02% | 7,225 | 0.02% | |
| Tibetan languages | n/a | n/a | 4,640 | 0.01% | n/a | n/a | |
| Sino-Tibetan languages, n.i.e.[nb 8] | n/a | n/a | 4,360 | 0.01% | n/a | n/a | |
| Sign languages, n.i.e.[nb 8] | 4,125 | 0.01% | 3,815 | 0.01% | n/a | n/a | |
| Vlaams (Flemish) | 3,895 | 0.01% | 4,690 | 0.01% | 5,660 | 0.02% | |
| Lingala | 3,810 | 0.01% | 3,085 | 0.01% | n/a | n/a | |
| Burmese | 3,585 | 0.01% | 2,985 | 0.01% | n/a | n/a | |
| Stoney | 3,025 | 0.01% | 3,050 | 0.01% | n/a | n/a | |
| Shanghainese | n/a | n/a | 2,920 | 0.01% | n/a | n/a | |
| Blackfoot | 2,815 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 3,085 | 0.01% | |
| Slavic languages, n.i.e.[nb 8] | 2,420 | 0.01% | 3,630 | 0.01% | n/a | n/a | |
| Semitic languages, n.i.e.[nb 8] | 2,155 | 0.01% | 16,970 | 0.05% | n/a | n/a | |
| Frisian | 2,095 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 2,890 | 0.01% | |
| Dogrib (Tlicho) | 1,645 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 2,020 | 0.01% | |
| Tibeto-Burman languages, n.i.e.[nb 8] | 1,405 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | |
| Siouan languages (Dakota/Sioux) | 1,265 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 5,585 | 0.02% | |
| Algonquin | 1,260 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 1,920 | 0.01% | |
| Scottish Gaelic | 1,095 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | |
| Welsh | 1,075 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | |
| Carrier | 1,030 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 1,560 | <0.01% | |
| Inuinnaqtun (Inuvialuktun) | 1,020 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 365 | <0.01% | |
| Mohawk | 985 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 290 | <0.01% | |
| South Slavey | 950 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 1,605 | 0.01% | Also known as Dene Yatıé or Dene Zhatıé, or Dené Dháh. |
| Gitxsan (Gitksan) | 880 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 1,180 | <0.01% | |
| North Slavey | 765 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 1,065 | <0.01% | Also known as Sahtúgot’įné Yatı̨́, K’ashógot’įne Goxedǝ́, and Shíhgot’įne Yatı̨́. |
| Tsilhqot'in | 655 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 1,070 | <0.01% | Also spelled Chilcotin. |
| Celtic languages, n.i.e.[nb 8] | 530 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | |
| Dënësųłıné | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | 525 | <0.01% | |
| Michif | 465 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | |
| Shuswap (Secwepemctsin) | 445 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 935 | <0.01% | |
| Nisga'a | 400 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 680 | <0.01% | |
| Malecite | 300 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 535 | <0.01% | |
| Kutchin-Gwich’in (Loucheux) | 260 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 360 | <0.01% | |
| Tlingit | 95 | <0.01% | n/a | n/a | 80 | <0.01% | |
| Otherlanguages | n/a | n/a | 77,890 | 0.2% | 172,650 | 0.55% | |
| Multiple language responses | 818,640 | 2.35% | 639,540 | 1.9% | 392,760 | 1.26% | |
| English and French | 165,335 | 0.48% | 144,685 | 0.4% | 98,630 | 0.32% | |
| English and a non-official language | 533,260 | 1.53% | 396,330 | 1.2% | 240,005 | 0.77% | |
| French and a non-official language | 86,145 | 0.25% | 74,430 | 0.2% | 43,335 | 0.14% | |
| English, French, and a non-official language | 33,900 | 0.1% | 24,095 | 0.07% | 10,790 | 0.03% | |
| Total[163][164][165] | 34,767,250 | 100% | 33,121,175 | 100% | 31,241,030 | 100% | |
| Language | % of total population (2006)[166] | % of total population (2016)[167] |
|---|---|---|
| English | 76.36% | 76.49% |
| French | 20.22% | 19.17% |
| Non-official | 1.49% | 1.38% |
| English and French | 1.37% | 2.07% |
| English and non-official | 0.47% | 0.77% |
| Other[i] | 0.09% | 0.12% |
| Language | % of total population (2006)[168] | % of total population (2016)[169] |
|---|---|---|
| English | 65.89% | 63.75% |
| French | 21.15% | 19.97% |
| Non-official | 11.11% | 11.5% |
| English and non-official | 1.3% | 3.7% |
| English and French | 0.3% | 0.46% |
| Other[j] | 0.24% | 0.63% |
His guides and interpreters included a "half Blackfoot" man named Paul and "a Stoney Hunter," both of whom had difficulties, according to Palliser, with Ktunaxa sign language.
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