TheLancaster House Agreement is an agreement signed on 21 December 1979 inLancaster House, following the conclusion of a constitutional conference where different parties discussed the future ofZimbabwe Rhodesia, formerly known asRhodesia.[1][2] The agreement effectively concluded theRhodesian Bush War. It also marked the nullification of Rhodesia'sUnilateral Declaration of Independence, asBritish colonial authority was to be restored for a transitional period to internationally recognised independence, during whichfree elections under supervision by the British government would take place. Crucially,ZANU andZAPU, the political wings ofZANLA andZIPRA (who had been waging an escalating insurgency since 1964), would be permitted to stand candidates in the forthcoming elections. This was however conditional to compliance with the ceasefire and the verified absence of voter intimidation.[3][4]
Following the meeting ofCommonwealthheads of government held inLusaka from 1–7 August 1979,[5][6] the British government invited BishopAbel Muzorewa, the recently installed prime minister of the (unrecognized) Zimbabwe Rhodesia government, along with the leaders of thePatriotic Front (the name of the ZANU-ZAPU coalition), to participate in a constitutional conference atLancaster House.[7][8] The purpose of the conference was to discuss and reach agreement on the terms of an post-independence constitution, to agree on the holding of elections under British authority, and to enable Zimbabwe Rhodesia to proceed to lawful and internationally recognised independence, with the parties settling their differences by political means.[9][10] The conference formally began on 10 September 1979.[11]
In the course of its proceedings the conference reached agreement on a post-independence constitution, arrangements for the post-independence period, and acease-fire agreement signed by all the parties.[42] In concluding this agreement and signing its report, the parties agreed to accept the authority of the governor, abide by the independenceconstitution (later called the "Lancaster Constitution"[43]) and ceasefire agreement,[44] comply with the pre-independence arrangements, campaign peacefully and without intimidation, renounce the use of force for political ends, and accept the outcome of the elections and to instruct any forces under their authority to do the same.[45] Under the constitution, 20 per cent of the seats in the country'sparliament were to be reserved for whites. This provision was set for seven years, remaining in the constitution until 1987.[46]
In November 1979, U.S. secretary of stateCyrus Vance recommended that PresidentJimmy Carter not lift sanctions on Rhodesia, arguing that doing so would "jeopardize the negotiations" and undermine U.S. ability to urge "flexibility on...external parties and...Front Line states."[47] The next month,Stephen Solarz argued that lifting sanctions before the end of the conference could be "cited as a reason for its collapse".[48]
The Lancaster House Agreement was signed on 21 December 1979.[49][50][11] Lord Carrington and Sir Ian Gilmour signed the agreement on behalf of the United Kingdom,[19] Abel Muzorewa and Silas Mundawarara signed for the government of Zimbabwe Rhodesia,[51][52] and Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo for the Patriotic Front.[20] According to Robert Matthews, the success of the Lancaster House negotiations can be explained by a "balance of forces on the battlefield that clearly favoured the nationalists" the impact of international sanctions on the Rhodesian economy, "a particular pattern of third party interests" and the resource and skills that Lord Carrington brought to the table as a mediator.[53] The agreement was also described as a "constitutional compromise".[54]
In terms of the ceasefire,ZAPU andZANU guerrillas were to gather at designated assembly points under British supervision, following which elections were to be held to elect a new government.[58] Theseelections were held in February 1980,[59] and resulted inZANU led byRobert Mugabe winning a majority of seats. On 18 April 1980, according to the terms of the constitution, agreed-upon during the Lancaster House negotiations, Southern Rhodesia became independent asZimbabwe, with Robert Mugabe as the firstprime minister.[60][61] Mugabe's victory reportedly spelled "disaster" for South Africa's plan to establish a "neutral constellation of friendly, client states."[62]
The content of Lancaster House Agreement covered the new constitution, pre-independence arrangements, and the terms of ceasefire.[63] The agreement is named afterLancaster House in London, where the conference on independence from 10 September to 15 December 1979 was held. The agreement was not, however, signed until 21 December.[20]
In February 1980, theU.N. Security Council passedResolution 463 which called on all parties to comply with the agreement, and the UK to fully implement the agreement, encouraging the UK government to ensure that South African forces would be withdrawn, regular ormercenary, out of the country. It also requested that the UK allow the speedy return of Zimbabwean exiles and refugees, release ofpolitical prisoners, confinement of the Rhodesian and auxiliary forces to their bases, and rescindment of all emergency measures and laws inconsistent with the conduct of free and fair elections.[64][65][66] The resolution also condemned South Africa for its interference in Southern Rhodesia and reaffirmed the "unalienable right" of the Zimbabwean people toself-determination. The council adopted the resolution by 14 votes to none, while the United Kingdom did not participate in the vote.[67][68][69]
It was said that the "crucial land question" was excluded from the conference's deliberations, with the "key financial backing for land restitution" promised by theCarter Administration,[70] but it actually delayed land reform by ten years.[71][72] The agreement specified that the new government could buy land owned by white settlers, but only from "willing sellers" with compensation, and without formal stipulations for Britain to "fund land programmes".[73][72][74] It was also said that the British were protective of "white farming interests" in Zimbabwe.[75]
In 1997,ZANLA and ZIPRA war veterans began receiving individual personal payments ofZW$50,000 each for their service in the Rhodesian Bush War.[76] Former civil servants of the Rhodesian Government andRhodesian military personnel received pensions until 2003; social welfare ministerNicholas Goche said in 2014 that the government could no longer afford to make the payments.[77]
In 1998, Robert Mugabe announced that theforced acquisition of land under section 8 would proceed. Within 24 hours, theZimbabwean dollar had devalued more than 50%.[78] In 2000 and 2001, the U.S. and British governments, and theEuropean Union, would condemn the new land reform program, although African organizations also criticised the international community for their role in the situation, and Britain's abrogation of their promises made at the time of Zimbabwean independence from colonial rule.[75]
^Chung, Fay; Kaarsholm, Preben (2006).Re-living the Second Chimurenga: memories from the liberation struggle in Zimbabwe. Harare: Weaver Press. p. 242.ISBN9171065512.
^"Walter Kamba".Institute of Commonwealth Studies. 8 May 2015.Archived from the original on 6 June 2023. Retrieved5 August 2023.
^Nkomo, John (21 July 1995)."John Nkomo".The Nordic Africa Institute (Interview). Interviewed by Tor Sellström. Archived fromthe original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved5 August 2023.
^"Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)".United States Participation in the United Nations: Report by the President to the Congress for the Year 1980. Washington, D.C.:United States Department of State Bureau of International Organization Affairs. 1981. pp. 307–309.
Mitchell, Nancy (2016).Jimmy Carter in Africa: Race and the Cold War. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.ISBN978-0804793858.
Matthews, Robert O. "From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe: prerequisites of a settlement."International Journal 45.2 (1990): 292–333.
Preston, Matthew. "Stalemate and the termination of civil war: Rhodesia reassessed."Journal of Peace Research41#1 (2004): 65–83.
Soames, Lord. "From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe."International Affairs 56#3 (1980): 405–419.online
Tendi, Blessing-Miles. "Soldiers contra diplomats: Britain’s role in the Zimbabwe/Rhodesia ceasefire (1979–1980) reconsidered."Small Wars & Insurgencies 26.6 (2015): 937–956.
United Kingdom
ZANU–PF