Victoria Nyanza. The black line indicates Stanley's route.
Lake Victoria is one of theAfrican Great Lakes.[6] With a surface area of approximately 59,947 km2 (23,146 sq mi),[7][8][page needed] Lake Victoria is Africa's largest lake by area, the world's largesttropical lake,[9] and the world's second-largestfresh water lake by surface area afterLake Superior in North America.[10] In terms of volume, Lake Victoria is the world'sninth-largest continental lake, containing about 2,424 km3 (1.965×109 acre⋅ft) of water.[8][11] Lake Victoria occupies a shallowdepression in Africa. The lake has an average depth of 40 m (130 ft) and a maximum depth of 80–81 m (262–266 ft).[8][11][12] Itscatchment area covers 169,858 km2 (65,583 sq mi).[13] The lake has a shoreline of 7,142 km (4,438 mi) when digitized at the 1:25,000 level,[14][page needed] with islands constituting 3.7% of this length.[15][page needed]
The lake's area is divided among three countries:Tanzania occupies 49% (33,700 km2 (13,000 sq mi)),Uganda 45% (31,000 km2 (12,000 sq mi)), andKenya 6% (4,100 km2 (1,600 sq mi)).[16]
PhotojournalistJohn Reader, writing in his Alan Paton Literary Award-winningAfrica: A Biography of a Continent,[21] describes Lake Victoria as being relatively geologically young at about 400,000-years old—having been formed as westward-flowing rivers were backed up "when a fractured block of the Earth's crust tilted along the line of the Great Rift Valley, raising its western edge".[22][better source needed] A primary study, attempting "fluvial differentiation of the basin of Lake Victoria", draws several relevant tentative conclusions. First, during theMiocene era, what is now the catchment area of the lake was on the western side of an uplifted area that functioned as a continental divide, with streams on the western side flowing into theCongo River basin and streams on the eastern side flowing to the Indian Ocean. Second, as theEast African Rift System formed, the eastern wall of theAlbertine Rift (or Western Rift) rose, gradually reversing the drainage towards what is now Lake Victoria. Third, the opening of the main East African Rift and the Albertine Rift downwarped the area between them as the rift walls rose, creating the current Lake Victoriabasin.[23][non-primary source needed]
Lake Victoria receives 80 percent of its water from direct rainfall.[15][page needed] Average evaporation on the lake is between 2.0 and 2.2 metres (6 ft 7 in and 7 ft 3 in) per year, almost double the precipitation ofriparian areas.[26] Lake Victoria receives its water additionally from rivers, and thousands of smallstreams. TheKagera River is the largest river flowing into this lake, with itsmouth on the lake's western shore. Lake Victoria is drained solely by theNile River nearJinja, Uganda on the lake's northern shore.[27]
In the Kenya sector, the main influent rivers are theSio,Nzoia,Yala,Nyando,Sondu Miriu,Mogusi, andMigori. The only outflow from Lake Victoria is the Nile River, which exits the lake near Jinja, Uganda. In terms of contributed water, this makes Lake Victoria the principal source of the longest branch of the Nile. However, the most distal source of the Nile Basin, and therefore the ultimatesource of the Nile, is more often considered to be one of the tributary rivers of the Kagera River (the exact tributary remains undetermined), and which originates in eitherRwanda orBurundi. The uppermost section of the Nile is generally known as the Victoria Nile until it reachesLake Albert. Although it is a part of the same river system known as theWhite Nile and is occasionally referred to as such, strictly speaking this name does not apply until after the river crosses the Uganda border into South Sudan to the north.
The lake exhibitseutrophic conditions. In 1990–1991, oxygen concentrations in the mixed layer were higher than in 1960–1961, with nearly continuous oxygen supersaturation in surface waters. Oxygen concentrations inhypolimnetic waters (i.e., the layer of water that lies below thethermocline, is noncirculating, and remains perpetually cold) were lower in 1990–1991 for a longer period than in 1960–1961, with values of less than 1 mg per litre (< 0.4 gr/cu ft) occurring in water as shallow as 40 metres (130 ft) compared with a shallowest occurrence of greater than 50 metres (160 ft) in 1961. The changes in oxygenation are considered consistent with measurements of higher algal biomass and productivity.[28] These changes have arisen for multiple reasons: successive burning within its basin,[29] soot and ash from which has been deposited over the lake's wide area; from increased nutrient inflows via rivers,[30] and from increased pollution associated with settlement along its shores.[31]
Between 2010 and 2022, the surface area of Lake Victoria increased by 15%[32] flooding lakeside communities.[33]
The lake is a shallow lake considering its large geographic area with a maximum depth of approximately 80 metres (260 ft) and an average depth of 40 metres (130 ft).[35] A 2016 project digitized ten-thousand points and created the first true bathymetric map of the lake.[34] The deepest part of the lake is offset to the east of the lake near Kenya and the lake is generally shallower in the west along the Ugandan shoreline and the south along the Tanzanian shoreline.[34]
Unlike many other Lake Victoria cichlids,Haplochromis nyererei remains common.[38] Compared to several other cichlids, its eyes are particularly sensitive to light, especially red, which is less affected by the decrease in water clarity caused byeutrophication thanshort wavelength colors[39]
Lake Victoria formerly was very rich in fish, including many endemics, but a high percentage of these became extinct since the 1940s.[40] The main group in Lake Victoria is thehaplochromine cichlids (Haplochromissensu lato) with more than 500 species, almost all endemic,[24][41][42] and including an estimated 300 that still areundescribed.[43] This is far more species of fish than any other lake in the world, exceptLake Malawi.[44] These are the result of a rapidadaptive radiation in the last circa 15,000 years.[24][41][45] Their extraordinary diversity and speed ofevolution have been the subjects for many scientists studying the forces that drive the richness of life everywhere.[41][46] The Victoria haplochromines are part of an older group of more than 700 closely related species, also including those of several smaller lakes in the region, notablyKyoga,Edward–George, Albert, andKivu.[24][41]
Most of these lakes are relatively shallow (like Victoria) and part of the present-day upper Nile basin. The exception is Lake Kivu, which is part of the present-dayCongo River basin, but is believed to have been connected to Lakes Edward and Victoria by rivers until the uplifting of parts of theEast African Rift.[24] This deep lake may have functioned as an "evolutionary reservoir" for this haplochromine group in periods where other shallower lakes in the region dried out, as happened to Lake Victoria about 15,000 years ago.[24] In recent history only Lake Kyoga was easily accessible to Victoria cichlids, as further downstream movement by theVictoria Nile (to Lake Albert) is prevented by a series of waterfalls, notablyMurchison. In contrast, theOwen Falls (now flooded by adam) between Victoria and Kyoga were essentially a series of rapids that did not effectively block fish movements between the two lakes.[47]
Haplochromis thereuterion survives in low numbers.[48] Initially feared extinct, when rediscovered it had changed habitat (from near surface to rocky outcrops) and feeding behavior (from surface insects to insect larvae)[49]
The Victoria haplochromines are distinctlysexually dimorphic (males relatively brightly colored; females dull),[50] and their ecology is extremely diverse, falling into at least 16 groups, includingdetritivores,zooplanktivores,insectivores, prawn-eaters,molluscivores andpiscivores.[46] As a result of predation by the introducedNile perch,eutrophication and other changes to the ecosystem, it is estimated that at least 200 species (about 40 percent) of Lake Victoria haplochromines have become extinct,[42][46][51] including more than 100 undescribed species.[43] Initially it was feared that this number was even higher, by some estimates 65 percent of the total species,[52] but several species that were feared extinct have been rediscovered after the Nile perch started to decline in the 1990s.[46][53] Several of the remaining species are seriously threatened and additional extinctions are possible.[54] Some species have survived in nearby small satellite lakes,[53] have survived in refugias among rocks orpapyrus sedges (protecting them from the Nile perch),[55] or have adapted to the human-induced changes in the lake itself.[46][51] Such adaptions include a largergill area (adaption for oxygen-poor water), changes in the feeding apparatus, changes to the eyes (giving them better sight in turbid water)[39][46] and smaller head/largercaudal peduncle (allowing faster swimming).[56] The piscivorous (affected by both predation and competition from Nile perch[57]), molluscivorous and insectivorous haplochromines were particularly hard hit with many extinctions.[46] Others have become extinct in their pure form, but survive ashybrids between close relatives (especially among the detritivores).[42][46] The zooplanktivores have been least affected and in the late 1990s had reached densities similar to, or above, the densities before the drastic declines, although consisting of fewer species and often switching their diet towardsmacroinvertebrates.[39][46] Some of the threatened Lake Victoria cichlid species have captive "insurance" populations in zoos,public aquaria and among private aquarists, and a few species areextinct in the wild (only survive in captivity).[58][59][60][61][62]
Before the mass extinction that has occurred among the lake's cichlids in the last 50 years, about 90 percent of the native fish species in the lake were haplochromines.[40] Disregarding the haplochromines, the only native Victoria cichlids are twocritically endangered tilapia, theSingida tilapia orngege (Oreochromis esculentus) andVictoria tilapia (O. variabilis).[63][64]
In 1927–1928Michael Graham conducted the first ever systematicFisheries Survey of Lake Victoria. In his official report of the expedition, Graham wrote that "The ngege or satuTilapia esculenta, is the most important food fish of the lake, whether for native or non-native consumption. No other fish equals it in the quality of the flesh. It is convenient size for trade, travels well and is found in much greater numbers than other important fish, such as semutundu (Luganda),Bagrus sp.".[65] Furthermore, Graham noted that the introduction of the European flaxgill net of 5 inch mesh had undoubtedly caused a diminution in the number of ngege in those parts of the Kavirondo Gulf, the northern shore of the lake, the Sesse Islands and Smith's Sound which are conveniently situated close to markets.[65] Survey catches in 1927–28 included severalHaplochromis species that are now thought to be extinct, including:Haplochromis flavipinnis,Haplochromis gowersii,Haplochromis longirostris,Haplochromis macrognathus,Haplochromis michaeli,Haplochromis nigrescens,Haplochromis prognathus.
View at Lake Victoria in UgandaNile monitor lizard, Lake Victoria.
As well as being due to the introduction ofNile perch, the extinction of cichlids in the genusHaplochromis has also been blamed on the lake's eutrophication. The fertility of tropical waters depends on the rate at which nutrients can be brought into solution. The influent rivers of Lake Victoria provide few nutrients to the lake in relation to its size. Because of this, most of Lake Victoria's nutrients are thought to be locked up in lake-bottom deposits.[15][page needed][66] By itself, this vegetative matter decays slowly. Animal flesh decays considerably faster, however, so the fertility of the lake is dependent on the rate at which these nutrients can be taken up by fish and other organisms.[66] There is little doubt thatHaplochromis played an important role in returning detritus and plankton back into solution.[67][68][69] With some 80 percent ofHaplochromis species feeding off detritus, and equally capable of feeding off one another, they represented a tight, internal recycling system, moving nutrients and biomass both vertically and horizontally through the water column, and even out of the lake via predation by humans and terrestrial animals. The removal ofHaplochromis, however, may have contributed to the increasing frequency ofalgal blooms,[30][68][69] which may in turn be responsible for massfish kills.[30]
At a genus level, most of these are widespread in Africa, but the very rareXenobarbus andXenoclarias are endemic to the lake, and the commonRastrineobola is near-endemic.[70]
Four species offreshwater crabs are known from Lake Victoria:Potamonautes niloticus is widespread in the lake andP. emini has been recorded from the vicinity ofBukoba in Tanzania, but both are also found elsewhere in Africa.[74][75] The last were first scientifically described in 2017 and very little is known about them:P. entebbe is only known from nearEntebbe (the only known specimen was collected in 1955 and it is unknown if it was in or near the lake) andP. busungwe only at Busungwe Island in the northwestern part of the lake. The latter likely is the smallest African freshwater crab with a carapace width up to about 1.6 cm (0.6 in), althoughP. kantsyore ofKagera River, andPlatythelphusa maculata andP. polita of Lake Tanganyika are almost as small.[76]
Lake Victoria is home to 28 species offreshwater snails (e.g.,Bellamya,Biomphalaria,Bulinus,Cleopatra,Gabbiella, andMelanoides), including 12 endemic species/subspecies.[78][79][page needed] There are 17 species ofbivalves (Corbicula,Coelatura,Sphaerium, andByssanodonta), including 6 endemic species and subspecies.[78][80] It is likely that undescribed species of snails remain. Conversely, genetic studies indicate that somemorphologically distinctive populations, traditionally regarded as separate species, may only be variants of single species.[43] Two of the snail genera,Biomphalaria andBulinus, areintermediate hosts of the parasite that causesbilharzia (schistosomiasis). Human infections by this parasite are common at Lake Victoria.[81] This may increase as a result of the spread of the invasive water hyacinth (an optimum snail habitat),[82] and the loss of many snail-eating cichlids in the lake.[83]
Evarcha culicivora is a species of jumping spider (familySalticidae) found only around Lake Victoria in Kenya and Uganda. It feeds primarily on female mosquitos.[84]
Lake Victoria supports Africa's largest inlandfishery (as of 1997).[85] Initially the fishery involved native species, especially tilapia and haplochromine cichlids, but also catfish (Bagrus,Clarias,Synodontis and silver butter catfish), elephantfish,ningu (Labeo victorianus) and marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus).[86][87] Some of these, including tilapia and ningu (Labeo victorianus), had already declined in the first half of the 20th century due tooverfishing.[46][88] To boost fishing, several species of non-native tilapia and Nile perch were introduced to the lake in the 1950s. Nevertheless, the natives continued to dominate fisheries until the 1970s where their decline meant that there was a strong shift towards the non-nativeNile tilapia (now 7 percent of catches), non-native Nile perch (60 percent) and the nativeLake Victoria sardine (30 percent).[46][87] Because of its small size, the abundant open-water Lake Victoria sardine only supported minor fisheries until the decline of other natives.[87] At the peak in the early 1990s, 500,000 tonnes (490,000 long tons; 550,000 short tons) of Nile perch were landed annually in Lake Victoria, but this has declined significantly in later years.[46]
A number ofenvironmental issues are associated with Lake Victoria and the complete disappearance of many endemic cichlid species has been called the "most dramatic example of human-caused extinctions within an ecosystem".[54]
Starting in the 1950s, many species have beenintroduced to Lake Victoria where they have becomeinvasive and a prime reason for the extinction of manyendemichaplochromine cichlids.[40] Among the introductions are severaltilapias:redbreast (Coptodon rendalli),redbelly (C. zillii), Nile (Oreochromis niloticus) andblue-spotted tilapias (O. leucostictus).[46][87][89] Although these have contributed to the extinction of native fish by causing significant changes to theecosystem, outcompeted natives and (in the case of the Nile tilapia) possibly hybridized with the highly threatened native tilapias, the most infamous introduction was the large and highly predatoryNile perch (Lates niloticus).[40][46][87]
TheNile perch was introduced to Lake Victoria for fishing, and can reach up to 2 m (6.6 ft) and 200 kg (440 lb).[90]
As early as the 1920s, it was proposed to introduce a large pelagic predator such as the Nile perch to improve the fisheries in the lake. At the same time it was warned that this could present a serious danger to the native fish species and required extensive research into possible ecological effects before done.[89] These warnings primarily concerned the native tilapiaO. esculentus, as the smaller haplochromine cichlids (despite playing an important role in local fisheries) were regarded as "trash fish" by the colonial government.[89] In the following decades, the pressure to introduce the Nile perch continued, as did warnings about the possible effects of doing it.[89] The first introduction of Nile perch to the region, done by theUganda Game and Fisheries Department (then part of the colonial government) and local African fish guards, happened upstream of Murchison Falls directly after the completion of the Owen Falls Dam in 1954. This allowed it to spread to Lake Kyoga where additional Nile perch were released in 1955, but not Victoria itself.[89] Scientists argued that further introduction should wait until research showed the effect of the introduction in Kyoga, but by the late 1950s, Nile perch began being caught in Lake Victoria.[89] As the species was already present, there were few objections when more Nile perch were transferred to Victoria to further bolster the stock in 1962–63.[89]
The origin of the first Victoria introductions in the 1950s is not entirely clear and indisputable evidence is lacking. Uganda Game and Fisheries Department (UGFD) officials denied that they were involved, but circumstantial evidence suggests otherwise and local Africans employed by UGFD have said that they introduced the species in 1954–55 under the directive of senior officials.[89] UGFD officials argued that Nile perch must have spread to Lake Victoria by themselves by passing through the Owen Falls Dam when shut down for maintenance, but this is considered highly unlikely by many scientists.[89] The Nile perch had spread throughout the lake by 1970.[46] Initially the population of the Nile perch was relatively low, but a drastic increase happened, peaking in the 1980s, followed by a decline starting in the 1990s.[46]
The release of large amounts of untreated wastewater (sewage) and agricultural and industrial runoff directly into Lake Victoria over the past 30 years has greatly increased the nutrient levels of nitrogen and phosphorus in the lake "triggering massive growth of exotic water hyacinth, which colonised the lake in the late 1990s".[91][92] This invasive weed creates anoxic (total depletion of oxygen levels) conditions in the lake, inhibiting decomposing plant material, raising toxicity and disease levels to both fish and people. At the same time, the plant's mat or "web" creates a barrier for boats and ferries to maneuver, impedes access to the shoreline, interferes with hydroelectric power generation, and blocks the intake of water for industries.[91][93][94][95][96] On the other hand, water hyacinth mats can potentially have a positive effect on fish life in that they create a barrier to overfishing and allow for fish growth, there has even been the reappearance of some fish species thought to have been extinct in recent years. The overall effects of the water hyacinth, however, are still unknown.[93][97]
Growth of the water hyacinth in Lake Victoria has been tracked since 1993, reaching its maxima biomass in 1997 and then declining again by the end of 2001.[93] Greater growth was observed in the northern part of the lake, in relatively protected areas, which may be linked to current and weather patterns and could also be due to the climate and water conditions, which are more suitable to the plants growth (as there are large urban areas to the north end of the lake, in Uganda).[96] The invasive weed was first attempted to be controlled by hand, removed manually from the lake; however, re-growth occurred quickly. Public awareness exercises were also conducted.[96] More recently, measures have been used such as the introduction of natural insect predators, including two different water hyacinth weevils and large harvesting and chopping boats, which seem to be much more effective in eliminating the water hyacinth.[96][98][99][100] A green power plant that uses harvested water hyacinth (but also can use other degradable waste) was constructed inKisumu County in 2013. In addition to thebiogas it produces, its by-product can be used asfertilizer.[43]
Other factors which may have contributed to the decline of the water hyacinth in Lake Victoria include varying weather patterns, such as El Niño during the last few months of 1997 and first six months of 1998 bringing with it higher levels of water in the lake and thus dislodging the plants. Heavy winds and rains along with their subsequent waves may have also damaged the plants during this same time frame. The plants may not have been destroyed, instead merely moved to another location. Additionally, the water quality, nutrient supply, temperature, and other environmental factors could have played a role. Overall, the timing of the decline could be linked to all of these factors and perhaps together, in combination, they were more effective than any one deterrent would have been by itself.[96] The water hyacinth is in remission and this trend could be permanent if control efforts are continued.[101]
Pollution of Lake Victoria is mainly due to discharge ofraw sewage into the lake, dumping of domestic and industrial waste, and fertiliser and chemicals from farms.
The Lake Victoria basin, while generally rural, has many major centres of population. Its shores are dotted with key cities and towns, includingKisumu,Kisii, andHoma Bay in Kenya;Kampala,Jinja and Entebbe in Uganda; and Bukoba,Mwanza, andMusoma in Tanzania. These cities and towns are also home to many factories that discharge some chemicals directly into the lake or its influent rivers. The set up of small beaches and local authorities around the lake lack proper sewage treatment facilities allowing pollutants to find their way into the water.[102][103] Large parts of these urban areas also discharge untreated (raw) sewage into the river, increasing itseutrophication that in turn is helping to increase the invasive water hyacinth.[104] Increasedlogging and act ofdeforestation has led toenvironmental degradation around the region reducing the absorption of polluting chemicals and deteriorating the water quality.[105]
As of 2016, an environmental data repository exists for Lake Victoria.[106] The repository contains shoreline, bathymetry, pollution, temperature, wind vector, and other important data for both the lake and the wider Basin.
The first recorded information about Lake Victoria comes fromArab traders plying the inland routes in search ofgold,ivory, other precious commodities, andslaves.
The lake as seen from the shores of the Speke Resort in Kampala, Uganda
Many Africans tribes lived in the catchment area around the lake. It was first sighted by aEuropean in 1858 when theBritish explorerJohn Hanning Speke reached its southern shore while on his journey withRichard Francis Burton to explore central Africa and locate the Great Lakes. Believing he had found the source of the Nile on seeing this "vast expanse of open water" for the first time, Speke named the lake after Queen Victoria. Burton, who had been recovering from illness at the time and resting further south in Kazeh (near present-dayTabora),[107][page needed] was outraged that Speke claimed to have proved his discovery to have been the true source of the Nile River, which Burton regarded as still unsettled. A very public quarrel ensued, which not only sparked a great deal of intense debate within the scientific community of the day, but also much interest by otherexplorers keen to either confirm or refute Speke's discovery.[108]
Motorboat on Lake Victoria, near the Ugandan shore
In the late 1860s, the famous Scottishexplorer andmissionaryDavid Livingstone failed in his attempt to verify Speke's discovery, instead pushing too far west and entering theRiver Congo system instead.[109] Ultimately, the British-American explorerHenry Morton Stanley, on an expedition funded by theNew York Herald newspaper, confirmed the truth of Speke's discovery, circumnavigating the lake over 1875-76 and reporting the great outflow atRipon Falls on the lake's northern shore.
The Lamadi water scheme is a water and sanitation project that serves Mwanza and the satellite towns of Lamadi, Misungwi, Magu, Bukoba, and Musoma on the bank of Lake Victoria. European Investment Bank started the project in 2013 with the aim of protecting the environmental health of the lake, through improved water and sanitation to the towns whose pollution is part of the degradation of the lake. The project aims to provide safe drinking water for an estimated one million people and improved sanitation for 100 000 people. Sediment and suspended solids are filtered out using sand, which acts like a sieve. The water is then ready to be chlorinated or treated in another way. The sand filtration helps reduce water-borne diseases and is based on the use of the local environment.[111]
The only outflow for Lake Victoria is at Jinja, Uganda, where it forms the Victoria Nile. The water for at least 12,000 years has drained across a natural rock weir. In 1952, engineers acting for the government ofColonial Uganda blasted out the weir and reservoir to replace it with an artificial barrage to control the level of the lake and reduce the gradual erosion of the rock weir. A standard for mimicking the old rate of outflow called the "agreed curve" was established, setting the maximum flow rate at 300 to 1,700cubic metres per second (392–2,224cu yd/sec) depending on the lake's water level.
In 2002, Uganda completed a secondhydroelectric complex in the area, theKiira Hydroelectric Power Station, withWorld Bank assistance. By 2006, the water levels in Lake Victoria had reached an 80-year low, and Daniel Kull, an independent hydrologist living inNairobi, Kenya, calculated that Uganda was releasing about twice as much water as is allowed under the agreement,[112] and was primarily responsible for recent drops in the lake's level.
Since the 1900s,Lake Victoria ferries have been an important means of transport between Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya. The main ports on the lake are Kisumu, Mwanza, Bukoba,Entebbe,Port Bell, and Jinja. Until 1963, the fastest and newest ferry,MVVictoria, was designated aRoyal Mail Ship. In 1966,train ferry services between Kenya and Tanzania were established with the introduction ofMV Uhuru andMV Umoja. The ferryMVBukoba sank in the lake on 21 May 1996 with a loss of between 800 and 1,000 lives, making it one of Africa's worst maritime disasters.[113] Another tragedy occurred recently on 20 September 2018 that involved the passagers ferryMV Nyerere fromTanzania that caused the deaths of over 200 people.[114]
On 6 November 2022, Lake Victoria was the site of a commercial passenger aircraft crash.Precision Air Flight 494, anATR 42–500 carrying 39 passengers and four crew, crashed while approachingBukoba Airport, resulting in 19 fatalities.[115][116]
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^Gichuki, J.; Guebas, F. Dahdouh; Mugo, J.; Rabour, C.O.; Triest, L.; Dehairs, F. (2001). "Species inventory and the local uses of the plants and fishes of the Lower Sondu Miriu wetland of Lake Victoria, Kenya".Hydrobiologia.458 (1–3):99–106.Bibcode:2001HyBio.458...99G.doi:10.1023/A:1013192330498.S2CID34576879.
^abcdeAlbright, T.P., Moorhouse, T.G., & McNabb, T.J. (January 1, 2004). "The Rise and Fall of Water Hyacinth in Lake Victoria and the Kagera River Basin, 1989-2001".Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 42, 73–84.
^Jäger, J., Bohunovsky, L., Radosh, L., & Sustainability Project. (2008).Our planet: How much more can earth take?. London: Haus.
^Ochiel, G.S., A.M. Mailu, W. Gitonga and S.W. Njoka. 1999.Biological Control of Water Hyacinth on Lake Victoria, Kenya, pp. 115–18.
^Mallya, G.A. 1999.Water hyacinth control in Tanzania, pp. 25–29.
^Crisman, T.L., Chapman, Lauren J., Chapman, Colin A., & Kaufman, Les S. (2003).Conservation, ecology, and management of African fresh waters. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
^Harris, Edward (29 September 2002)."Diver's recover 180 bodies from Africa's worst ferry disaster".Panama City News Herald. Panama city, Florida. p. 8. Retrieved6 April 2018 – via Newspaperarchive.com.The tragedy was one of Africa's deadliest maritime disasters. On May 21st 1996, at least 500 people died in the sinking of the MV Bukova on Lake Victoria.
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