Lake Ontario is the easternmost of the Great Lakes and the smallest in surface area (7,340 sq mi, 19,000 km2),[5] although it exceedsLake Erie in volume (393 cu mi, 1,640 km3 to 116 cu mi (480 km3)). It is the 13th-largest lake in the world. When its islands are included, the lake's shoreline is 712 miles (1,146 km) long. As the last lake in the Great Lakes' hydrologic chain, Lake Ontario has the lowest mean surface elevation of the lakes at 243 feet (74 m)[6] above sea level; 326 feet (99 m) lower than its neighbor upstream. Its maximum length is 193statute miles (311kilometres; 168nautical miles), and its maximum width is 53 statute miles (85 km; 46 nmi).[6] The lake's average depth is 47fathoms 1 foot (283 ft; 86 m), with a maximum depth of 133 fathoms 4 feet (802 ft; 244 m) in theRochester Basin.[6][7] The lake's primary source is the Niagara River, draining Lake Erie, with the Saint Lawrence River serving as the outlet. Thedrainage basin covers 24,720 square miles (64,030 km2).[5][13] As with all the Great Lakes, water levels change both within the year (owing to seasonal changes in water input) and among years (owing to longer-term trends in precipitation). These water level fluctuations are an integral part oflake ecology and produce and maintain extensive wetlands.[14][15] The lake also has an important freshwater fishery, although it has been negatively affected by factors includingoverfishing, water pollution andinvasive species.[16]
Baymouth bars built by prevailing winds and currents have created a significant number oflagoons and sheltered harbors, mostly near (but not limited to)Prince Edward County, Ontario, and the easternmost shores. Perhaps the best-known example isToronto Bay, chosen as the site of theUpper Canada capital for its strategic harbor. Other prominent examples includeHamilton Harbour,Irondequoit Bay,Presqu'ile Bay, andSodus Bay. The bars themselves are the sites of long beaches, such asSandbanks Provincial Park andSandy Island Beach State Park. These sand bars are often associated with largewetlands, which support large numbers of plant and animal species, as well as providing important rest areas for migratory birds.[17][18] Presqu'ile, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, is particularly significant in this regard. One unique feature of the lake is the Z-shapedBay of Quinte which separates Prince Edward County from the Ontario mainland, save for a 2-mile (3.2 km) isthmus near Trenton; this feature also supports many wetlands and aquatic plants, as well as associated fisheries.
The lake basin was carved out of soft, weakSilurian-age rocks by theWisconsin ice sheet during thelast ice age. The action of the ice occurred along the pre-glacialOntarian River valley which had approximately the same orientation as today's basin.Material that was pushed southward by the ice sheet left landforms such asdrumlins,kames, andmoraines, both on the modern land surface and the lake bottom,[19] reorganizing the region's entire drainage system. As the ice sheet retreated toward the north, it still dammed the St. Lawrence Valley outlet, so the lake surface was at a higher level. This stage is known asLake Iroquois. During that time the lake drained through present-daySyracuse, New York, into theMohawk River, thence to theHudson River and the Atlantic. The shoreline created during this stage can be easily recognized by the (now dry) beaches and wave-cut hills 10 to 25 miles (16 to 40 km) from the present shoreline.
When the ice finally receded from the St. Lawrence valley, the outlet was belowsea level, and for a short time, the lake became abay of the Atlantic Ocean, in association with theChamplain Sea. Gradually the landrebounded from the release of the weight of about 6,500 feet (2,000 m) of ice that had been stacked on it. It is still rebounding about 12 inches (30 cm) per century in the St. Lawrence area. Since the ice receded from the area last, the most rapid rebound still occurs there. This means the lake bed is gradually tilting southward, inundating the south shore andturning river valleys into bays. Both north and south shores experience shoreline erosion, but the tilting amplifies this effect on the south shore, causing loss to property owners.
Hamilton Harbour frozen over. Ice sheets can form along the shoreline of Lake Ontario during the winter.
The lake has a naturalseiche rhythm of eleven minutes. The seiche effect normally is only about3⁄4 inch (1.9 cm) but can be greatly amplified by earth movement, winds, and atmospheric pressure changes. Because of its great depth, the lake as a whole does not completely freeze in winter, but an ice sheet covering between 10% and 90% of the lake area typically develops, depending on the severity of the winter. Ice sheets typically form along the shoreline and in slack water bays, where the lake is not as deep. During the winters of 1877 and 1878, the ice sheet coverage was up to 95–100% of the lake.During the War of 1812, the ice cover was stable enough the American naval commander stationed at Sackets Harbor feared a British attack from Kingston, over the ice. The lake has completely frozen over on five recorded occasions: in 1830,[20] 1874, 1893, 1912, and 1934.[21]
When the cold winds of winter pass over the warmer water of the lake, they pick up moisture and drop it aslake-effect snow. Since the prevailing winter winds are from the northwest, the southern and southeastern shoreline of the lake is referred to as thesnowbelt. In some winters, the area between Oswego andPulaski may receive twenty or more feet (600 cm) of snowfall. Also impacted by lake-effect snow is theTug Hill Plateau, an area of elevated land about 20 miles (32 km) east of Lake Ontario. The "Hill", as it is often referred to, typically receives more snow than any other region in theeastern United States. As a result, Tug Hill is a popular location for winter enthusiasts, such as snow-mobilers and cross-country skiers. Lake-effect snow often extends inland as far asSyracuse, with that city often recording the most winter snowfall accumulation of any large city in the United States. Other cities in the world receive more snow annually, such asQuebec City, which averages 135 inches (340 cm), andSapporo, Japan, which receives 250 inches (640 cm) each year and is often regarded as the snowiest city in the world.
Foggy conditions (particularly in fall) can be created by thermal contrasts and can be an impediment for recreational boaters. Lake breezes in spring tend to slow fruit bloom until the frost danger is past, and in the autumn delay the onset of fall frost, particularly on the south shore. Cool onshore winds also slow the early bloom of plants and flowers until later in the spring season, protecting them from possible frost damage. Suchmicroclimatic effects have enabled tender fruit production in a continental climate, with the southwest shore supporting a major fruit-growing area.Apples,cherries,pears,plums, andpeaches are grown in many commercial orchards around Rochester. BetweenStoney Creek andNiagara-on-the-Lake on theNiagara Peninsula is a major fruit-growing and wine-making area. Thewine-growing region extends over the international border intoNiagara andOrleans counties in New York. Apple varieties that tolerate a more extreme climate are grown on the lake's north shore, aroundCobourg.
The Great Lakes watershed is a region of high biodiversity, and Lake Ontario is important for its diversity of birds, fish, reptiles, amphibians, and plants. Many of these special species are associated with shorelines, particularly sand dunes, lagoons, and wetlands. The importance of wetlands to the lake has been appreciated, and many of the larger wetlands have protected status. These wetlands are changing, partly because the natural water level fluctuations have been reduced. Many wetland plants are dependent upon low water levels to reproduce.[22] When water levels are stabilized, the area and diversity of the marsh is reduced. This is particularly true of meadow marsh (also known aswet meadow wetlands); for example, in Eel Bay near Alexandria Bay, regulation of lake levels has resulted in large losses of wet meadow.[23] Often this is accompanied by the invasion ofcattails, which displace many of the native plant species and reduce plant diversity.Eutrophication may accelerate this process by providing nitrogen and phosphorus for the more rapid growth of competitively dominant plants.[24] Similar effects are occurring on the north shore, in wetlands such as Presqu'ile, which have interdunal wetlands calledpannes, with high plant diversity and many unusual plant species.[25]
Lake Ontario's food web
Most of the forests around the lake aredeciduous forests dominated by trees including maple, oak, beech, ash and basswood. These are classified as part of theMixedwood Plains Ecozone by Environment Canada, or as theEastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands by theUnited States Environmental Protection Agency, or as the Great Lakes Ecoregion by The Nature Conservancy.[26] Deforestation in the vicinity of the lake has had many negative impacts,[27] including loss of forest birds, extinction of native salmon, and increased amounts of sediment flowing into the lake. In some areas, more than 90 percent of theforest cover has been removed and replaced by agriculture. Certain tree species, such as hemlock, have also been particularly depleted by past logging activity.[28] Guidelines for restoration stress the importance of maintaining and restoring forest cover, particularly along streams and wetlands.[29][30]
By the 1960s and 1970s, the increased pollution caused frequentalgal blooms to occur in the summer.[16] These blooms killed large numbers of fish, and left decomposing piles of filamentous algae and dead fish along the shores.[31]
Lake Ontario is the most downstream lake of the Great Lakes, so the pollution from all the other lakes flows into it. Lake Ontario was ranked as the most environmentally stressed amongst the five Great Lakes in a 2015 ecological study. Some of the stresses on the lake include excess application of fertilizers in agriculture running into the lake, spillover from obsolete municipalsewage systems, toxic chemicals from industries along the rivers that drain into the lake, and metropolitan drainage from big cities like Toronto, Rochester, and Hamilton.[32]
Randle Reef, the westernmost part of Lake Ontario, has been identified as one of the most contaminated areas on Lake Ontario alongside otherareas of concern on Great Lakes. However, a $150-million cleanup project had begun in 2016 and is expected to be completed by 2025.[33]
The name Ontario is derived from the Huron wordOntarí'io, which is often translated as "great lake".[10] In Colonial times, the lake was also calledCataraqui, a French spelling of theMohawkKatarokwi.[34][35] The first archaeologically evidence of humans in the Lake Ontario region dates to circa 11,000 BP. These peoples were mobile foragers who based much of their movement and settlement on the seasonal migrations of caribou, but who also used smaller animals and plant resources.[36] These early settlers likely inhabited the lake margins, but those early lake shores are now either far from the current lake representing earlier, higher waters, or submerged under the modern lake, representing periods of lower lake levels. Lake Ontario reached its modern level circa 4000 BP.[37][38] The lake was a border between theHuron people and theIroquois Confederacy in thepre-Columbian era. In the 17th century, the Iroquois committed genocide against the Huron in southern Ontario andsettled the northern shores of Lake Ontario.[39] When the Iroquois withdrew and theAnishinaabe moved in from the north to southern Ontario, they retained the Iroquois name.[40]
It is believed the first European to reach the lake wasÉtienne Brûlé in 1615. European colonization of Lake Ontario was slow and uneven due to the power and organization of the Haudenosaunee, Wendat, and Ojibwe nations. From 1688 to 1694 the Haudenosaunee largely excluded the French from Lake Ontario.[41]
As was their practice, the French explorers introduced other names for the lake. In 1632 and 1656, the lake was referred to as Lac de St. Louis or Lake St. Louis bySamuel de Champlain and cartographerNicolas Sanson respectively.[42] In 1660,Jesuit historianFrancis Creuxius coined the nameLacus Ontarius. In a map drawn in theRelation des Jésuites (1662–1663), the lake bears the legend "Lac Ontario ou des Iroquois" with the name "Ondiara" in smaller type. A French map produced in 1712 (currently in theCanadian Museum of History[43]), created by military engineerJean-Baptiste de Couagne, identified Lake Ontario as "Lac Frontenac" named after Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac et de Palluau. He was a French soldier, courtier, and Governor General ofNew France from 1672 to 1682 and from 1689 to his death in 1698.
In the 17th century, reports of an alleged creature namedGaasyendietha, similar to the so-calledLoch Ness Monster, being sighted in the lake. The creature is described as large with a long neck, green in colour, and generally causes a break in the surface waves.[44][45][46]
A series of trading posts were established by both the British and French, such asFort Frontenac in 1673,Fort Oswego in 1722, andFort Rouillé in 1750. As the easternmost and nearest lake to the Atlantic seaboard of Canada and the United States, population centres here are among the oldest in the Great Lakes basin, withKingston, Ontario, formerly thecapital of Canada, dating to the establishment of Fort Frontenac in 1673.
After theFrench and Indian War, all forts around the lake were under British control. During theAmerican Revolution, the British controlled Lake Ontario from their bases atCarleton Island,Navy Hall, andOswego, allowing them to largely excluded the Americans from the lake.[47] The United States took possession of the forts along the American side of the lake at the signing of theJay Treaty in 1794. Permanent, non-military European settlement began during theAmerican Revolution with the influx ofLoyalist settlers.
Following the American Revolution, sailing commerce slowly returned to Lake Ontario. There was one private commercial vessel, theGood Intent, on the lake in 1788. Several more vessels were launched prior to 1800, primarily by Canadian merchants.[48] Commerce continued to expand until theEmbargo of 1807. There was significant smuggling across Lake Ontario during the embargo.[49]
During the War of 1812, the Royal Navy and US Navy operated substantial shipyards at Kingston, Ontario andSackets Harbor, New York, respectively, andfought in several engagements for control of Lake Ontario. The Great Lakes, including Lake Ontario, were largely demilitarized after theRush–Bagot Treaty was ratified in 1818. As a result, most of the naval vessels were sold or abandoned.[50][51]
The lake became a hub of commercial activity following theWar of 1812 with canal building on both sides of the border and significant sailing and steamer commerce.
Sailing commerce on Lake Ontario was initially significant but declined relative to the other Great Lakes after the mid-19th century as the centers of colonialist agriculture, timbering, and mining moved farther west.[52] After theErie Canal opened, much of the movement of people and commodities between the East Coast and the Great Lakes circumvented Lake Ontario.Oswego remained an important port on Lake Ontario during this time because theOswego Canal allowed shippers to connect to the Erie Canal while avoiding bottlenecks at Buffalo, New York.[53]Kingston,Clayton, andOswego were major 19th century wooden shipbuilding centers on Lake Ontario.[54][55] Oil and coal were important commodities shipped on Lake Ontario through the early 20th century.[56] In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a type of scow known as astone hooker was in operation on the northwest shore, particularly aroundPort Credit andBronte.Stonehooking was the practice of raking flat fragments of Dundasshale from the shallow lake floor of the area for use in construction, particularly in the growing city of Toronto.[57]
TheFrontenac was the first steamer on Lake Ontario and the Great Lakes. This ship was launched in September 1816 from Finkle's Point (nowBath) near Kingston, ON.Frontenac was constructed by two shipbuilders who had worked for the Americans during the War of 1812 and captained by a former Royal Navy sailing master.[58][59] The Americans at Sackets Harbor launched a smaller steamship, theOntario, in March 1817.[59][60]
As bulk cargoes became increasingly important in Great lakes commerce and the number of improved harbors increased, so did propeller ships.[60][61] The number of propeller ships exceed the number of side-wheel steamers by circa 1857.[62] TheVandalia was the first propeller ship on the Great Lakes and the second in the United States. Launched at Oswego in 1841,Vandalia's propeller was designed byJohn Ericsson.[60][61] Steamer activity peaked in the mid-19th century before competition from railway lines.[63][64]
Iron hull construction developed on Lake Ontario during the mid-19th century but did not become widespread until the early 20th century. The first iron-hulled ship on the Great Lakes, the British paddle-wheel gunboat HMSMohawk, was launched at Kingston in 1843. ThePassport and theMagnet, both built for the Royal Mail Line, were launched at Kingston in 1846 and at Niagara in 1847, respectively.[65][66]
A plaque forMarilyn Bell, the first person to swim across the lake.
As of 2012[update], nearly 50 people have successfully swum across the lake.[67] The first person who accomplished the feat was a Canadian long distance swimmerMarilyn Bell, who did it in 1954 at age 16. Toronto's Marilyn Bell Park is named in her honour. The park opened in 1984 and is east of the spot where Bell completed her swim.[68] In 1974,Diana Nyad became the first person who swam across the lake against the current (from north to south).[69] On August 28, 2007, 14-year-old Natalie Lambert from Kingston, Ontario, made the swim, leaving Sackets Harbor, New York, and reaching Kingston's Confederation basin less than 24 hours after she entered the lake.[70] On August 19, 2012, 14-year-oldAnnaleise Carr became the youngest person to swim across the lake. She completed the 32-mile (52-km) crossing from Niagara-on-the-Lake to Marilyn Bell Park in just under 27 hours.[71]
A largeconurbation called theGolden Horseshoe occupies the lake's westernmost shores, anchored by the cities of Toronto and Hamilton. Ports on the Canadian side include St. Catharines, Oshawa, Cobourg and Kingston, near the St. Lawrence River outlet. Close to 9 million people, or over a quarter of Canada's population, live within the watershed of Lake Ontario. The American shore is largely rural, with the exception of Rochester and the much smaller ports at Oswego and Sackets Harbor. The city of Syracuse is 40 miles (64 km) inland, connected to the lake by the New York State Canal System. Over 2 million people live in Lake Ontario's American watershed.
View of Toronto and a frozen Lake Ontario from theToronto Islands. Toronto is the largest settlement located along the lake's shoreline.
View of Stella Village onAmherst Island, one of several islands located in the lake.
Several islands exist in the lake, the largest of which beingWolfe Island. Nearly all of Lake Ontario's islands are on the eastern and northeastern shores, between the Prince Edward County headland and the lake's outlet at Kingston, underlain by thebasement rock found throughout the region. However, there exist several islands in the northwestern portion of the lake. Notable islands include:
A land-based trail that roughly follows the lake's shoreline also exists, theGreat Lakes Circle Tour andSeaway Trail. The designated scenic road systems connects all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.[72] As the Seaway Trail is posted on the U.S. side only, Lake Ontario is the only of the fiveGreat Lakes to have no posted bi-national circle tour.
Thegovernment of Ontario, which holds the lakebed rights of the Canadian portion of the lake under the Beds of Navigable Waters Act,[75] does not permitwind power to be generated offshore.[76] InTrillium Power Wind Corporation v. Ontario (Natural Resources),[75] theSuperior Court of Justice held Trillium Power—since 2004 an "Applicant of Record" who had invested $35,000 in fees and, when in 2011 the Crown made a policy decision against offshore windfarms, claimed an injury of $2.25 billion—disclosed no reasonable cause of action.
The Great Lakes once supported an industrial-scale fishery, with record hauls in 1899; overfishing later blighted the industry.[77] However, only recreational fishing activities exist in the 21st century.
^National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Bathymetry of Lake Ontario. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V56H4FBH [access date: March 23, 2015].
^National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Bathymetry of Lake Erie and Lake Saint Clair. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V5KS6PHK [access date: March 23, 2015]. (only small portion of this map)
^National Geophysical Data Center, 1999.Global Land One-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1.Archived February 24, 2011, at Wikiwix Hastings, D. and P.K. Dunbar. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS [access date: March 16, 2015].
^Armstrong, Leslie (August 14, 2014). "Great Lakes Water Levels Rebound Thanks to Prolonged Winter".Toronto Star.
^abBarbeau, Marius (1961). "Legend and History in the Oldest Geographical Names of the St. Lawrence".Inland Seas.17 (2): 112.
^O’Callaghan, E.B. (1855).Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New-York, vol. IX. Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons and Company. pp. 16, 76.
^Wallis, Richard P. (1958). "Names on the Lakes".Inland Seas.14 (1): 16.
^Wilcox, D.A, Thompson, T.A., Booth, R.K., and Nicholas, J.R.. 2007. Lake-level variability and water availability in the Great Lakes. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1311, 25 p.
^Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Chapter 2.
^abChristie, W. J. (1974). Changes in the fish species composition of the Great Lakes. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 31, 827–54.
^Maynard, L., and Wilcox, D.A., 1997, Coastal wetlands of the Great Lakes—State of the Lakes Ecosystem Conference 1996 background paper: Environment Canada and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA 905–R–97–015b, 99 p.
^Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.497 p.
^Kingston Chronicle, January 30, 1830, 2, col. 6 ("For several years past we have not been visited with so much snow as has fallen here within the last fortnight. The storm of Wednesday and yesterday could only be equalled by such visitations as are familiar to our Lower Canada friends. The thermometer has ranged from 10° below, to 20° above 0, for the last ten days. The Lake is firmly frozen, and a cheap and safe style of travelling has revived the intercourse with our brethren of theindependent portion of the world");The Republican Compiler [newspaper], February 23, 1830, p. 2, col. 5 ("At Kingston, Upper Canada, the quantity of snow which had fallen had not been equaled for several years.—The Lake (Ontario) was frozen, and crossing had become general"); Perry, Kenneth A,The Fitch Gazetteer: An Annotated Index to the Manuscript History of Washington County, New York, 4 vols. (Bowie, Md.: Heritage Books, 1999), 4:565 ("Kingston, Upper Canada, [experiencing] the deepset [sic] snow in several yrs., & Lake Ontario frozen over");Kingston Chronicle [newspaper], January 9, 1830, 2, col. 1 ("the Bay was frozen across this morning");see also Vermont Chronicle, (Bellows Falls, Vt.) Friday, February 19, 1830, p. 31, col D, quoting theQuebec Gazette: "The Lake (Ontario) was frozen, and crossing had become general."
^Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p. Chapters 1 and 2.
^Wilcox, D.A, Thompson, T.A., Booth, R.K., and Nicholas, J.R. 2007. Lake-level variability and water availability in the Great Lakes. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1311.Box 4
^Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p.
^Moore, D. R. J. and Keddy, P. A. (1989). The relationship between species richness and standing crop in wetlands: the importance of scale. Vegetation, 79, 99–106.
^Williams, M. 1989.Americans and Their Forests: A Historical Geography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^Keddy, C.J. 1993. Forest History of Eastern Ontario. A report prepared for the Eastern Ontario Forest Group.
^Environment Canada. 2004. How Much Habitat is Enough? A Framework for Guiding Habitat Rehabilitation in Great Lakes Areas of Concern. 2nd ed. 81 p.
^Keddy, P.A. and C. G. Drummond. 1996. Ecological properties for the evaluation, management, and restoration of temperate deciduous forest ecosystems. Ecological Applications 6: 748–762.
^Vallentyne, J. R. (1974). The Algal Bowl: Lakes and Man, Miscellaneous Special Publication No. 22. Ottawa, ON: Department of the Environment, Fisheries and Marine Service.
^Murray, Laura (July 12, 2017)."Ka'tarohkwi: The Original Swamp Ward?".The Swamp Ward and Inner Harbour History Project. RetrievedMarch 21, 2022. One translation of the name is "muddy land", or swamp.
^Ikwe, Zoogipon (November 13, 2020)."History of Katarokwi".The Queen's University Journal. RetrievedMarch 19, 2022.
^Storck, Peter (2004).Journey to the Ice Age: Discovering an Ancient World. Toronto, ON: Royal Ontario Museum.
^Anderson, T.W.; Lewis, C.F.M. (1985). "Postglacial Water-Level History of the Lake Ontario Basin". In Karrow, P.F.; Calkin, P.E. (eds.).Quaternary Evolution of the Great Lakes. St. Johns, NL: Geological Association of Canada.
^Halligan, Jessi (2011). "Lake Ontario Paleoshorelines and Submerged Prehistoric Site Potential in the Great Lakes". In Ford, Ben (ed.).The Archaeology of Maritime Landscapes. New York, NY: Springer.
^The Morning Post (London, England), Saturday, July 25, 1835; p. 6 "Sea Serpent in Lake Ontario"
^Glasgow Herald (Glasgow, Scotland), Friday, June 28, 1867 "Another Sea Serpent Sensation: A hideous monster discovered in Lake Ontario"
^Pinkwater, Daniel.The Monster of Lake Ontario. New York: Houghton Mifflin Publishing, 2010, pp. 46–47.
^Smith, Arthur Britton (1997).Legend of the Lake: The 22-Gun Brig Sloop Ontario. Kingston, ON: Quarry Press.
^Cruikshank, E.A. (1926). "Notes on the History of Shipbuilding and Navigation on Lake Ontario up to the Time of the Launching of the Steamship Frontenac, at Ernesttown, Ontario, 7th September, 1816".Ontario Historical Society’s Papers and Records XXIII. Toronto, ON: Ontario Historical Society. pp. 6–7.
^Brown, Jack (198).Simon Johnston and the Ships of Clayton. Mallorytown, ON: River Heritage Books. p. 69.
^Monk, Kimberly (2003).A Great Lakes Vessel Type: Archaeological and Historical Examination of the Welland Sailing Canal Ship, Sligo, Toronto, Ontario. Greenville, NC: East Carolina University. pp. 15, 77.
^Snider, Charles Henry Jeremiah, Townsend, Robert B. Tales from the Great Lakes. Toronto: Dundurn Press Limited, 1995, pp. 25.
^Cruikshank, E.A. (1926). "Notes on the History of Shipbuilding and Navigation on Lake Ontario up to the Time of the Launching of the Steamship Frontenac, at Ernesttown, Ontario, 7th September, 1816".Ontario Historical Society’s Papers and Records XXIII. Toronto, ON: Ontario Historical Society.
^abLewis, Walter (1987). "The Frontenac: A Reappraisal".Fresh Water.2 (1):28–39.
^abcBarry, James (1996).Ships of the Great Lakes. Holt, MI: Thunder Bay Press. p. 59.
^abEricson, Bernard (1969). "The Evolution of Great Lakes Ships, Part II – Steam and Steel".Inland Seas.25 (3):199–212.
^Barry, James (1996).Ships of the Great Lakes. Holt, MI: Thunder Bay Press. p. 145.
^Meinig, D.W. (1966). "Geography of Expansion, 1785–1855". In Thompson, John (ed.).Geography of New York State. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. pp. 140–171.
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