Lakana, also known aslaka, are the traditional watercraft of theMalagasy people ofMadagascar.^[1][2][3][4] It has several different types, but the most common is thelakana fiara (also known simply as thelaka), asingle-outrigger canoe with adugout main hull (often extended with additional planks) and rigged with a square-shaped sail on V-shaped removable masts. It is primarily used in the western coast of Madagascar among the semi-nomadicVezo people for fishing and for passenger transport.^[1][5]

Lakana are also used by theKibushi-speaking Malagasy people of theFrench overseas territory ofMayotte and elsewhere in theComoros.^[6][2]

The termlakana orlaka more accurately refers to thedugout which serves as the mainhull or thekeel (in larger boats).^{[1][5][7][8][9]} The dugout is made from a single tree trunk, which must be carefully chosen, cut down, and carved in place. The preferred wood used is from thefarafatsy tree (Givotia madagascariensis). Before drying and other preparations, the freshly-carved dugout that will become either the hull or the keel is known as theroka (which is not yet considered a proper canoe). Carving theroka is considered the most difficult step in the making of a canoe. It is shaped to a narrow sharp edge on both ends. Greater attention is given to the distinct upturnedprow (thefiranà), as its shape affects the speed and stability of the boat.^{[1][2][10][7]} The hull traditionally has norudder, but are steered by means of apaddle.^[2][11]

In larger vessels, the dugout serves as the keel and is extended with additional planks on the sides. These are traditionally constructed without nails (though modern canoes use nails), and are instead fixed with hardwood pegs andsewn together withraffia palm fibers.^[7][12][13] The planks must perfectly fit along the edges to the dugout and to each other, to avoid leakage. Supports for the booms and seats are fitted directly into the hull. A wooden rail is then fitted to the upper edge of the hull to fix the other components in place. The bottom part of the hull is waterproofed withtar, while the upper part is usually painted. Once completed and dried fully, the other parts, like outriggers and rigs, are then assembled.^[1]

Modernlakana can also be equipped with motor engines (usually less than 15horsepower).^[14][15][16] It can also be propelled traditionally with paddles known asfivè orfivoy, orpunting poles known aslopondrà. Other traditional equipment associated with thelakana include thehavitrà (theboat hook), and thedimà (a woodenbailer).^[2]

The type of hull fitted with anoutrigger is known aslakan-jilo (alsolakam-jilo orlakan-jejo),^[2][10][17] meaning "sharp-edgedlakana," due to its shape.^[18] The outrigger is known asfanarinà (lit. "that which maintains the equilibrium,"fanary in some dialects) orfangarahanà (lit. "that which is always covered [by water]"). The booms that connect it to the hull are known asraronà,varonadukanà,varona, ortanam-panary; while the connecting peg stanchions on the float are known as thetatikà.^[2][10]

Thelakana is generally asingle-outrigger boat, with only one outrigger float. Some forms are described as "pseudo-double-outrigger" with a vestigial second outrigger float that has become a balancing lighter pole on one side opposite the actual float.^[2] This counterbalance pole is known as thefanarinà boty orfanary boty (lit. "smallfanarinà").^[10][19]

Mostlakana are equipped with a large square-shaped sail, known as thelay,^[2] traditionally woven fromraffia palm fibers.^[20] It is a type ofcrab claw sail and is rigged to two removable masts loosely lashed to the front boom of the outrigger and fitted to a series of carved holes on the hull. By shifting the foot of the poles into different holes, the sails can be trimmed for either running before the wind (asquare sail configuration) or sailing close-hauled (afore-and-aft configuration).^[11][7] Doran (1981) identifies that bothtacking andshunting techniques are also practiced in Madagascar, similar to those done in Oceanian single-outrigger canoes.^[4]

The vertical removable mast of the rig is known as themingory and it is tied to the booms with lines known asjarary.^[10] The non-nativelateen rig (acquired fromArabs) is also used more commonly amonglakana in the northwestern coast of Madagascar and in theComoros.^[2][16]

The smallestlakana can be sailed by a single person, but for all other types oflakana, sailing requires at least two people. One sits at the rear and operates the steering paddle, while another sits behind the masts and operates the sails. The steersman orders the sail operator to change the positions of the masts and sails when needed. The sail operator does this by manipulating the sail ropes, adjusting the mast configurations along the guide holes after a change in wind direction, and sometimes perching on the outrigger boom to balance the canoe against sudden wind changes. The most difficult task is rigging alakana at sea. The heavy wooden masts, usually around 5 m (16 ft) long, have to be submerged vertically into the water to orient it. They are then lifted straight up and fitted gently unto their sockets.^[1]

Along the west coast of Madagascar, the simplest type oflakana without outriggers, sails, or additional planks is known as thelaka molanga. It is often simply called themolanga to differentiate it from thelakana fiara (also usually shortened tolaka).^[1] The wordmolanga is the local name for several tree species with soft, light-colored wood.^[21] It is carved from the trunk of a single tree. Once carved, it is allowed to dry and is then used without further modifications.^[1]Molanga are typically used for navigating rivers and channels. They are easy to operate and can be paddled by women and even children. Their sizes can vary, but they are usually very narrow.^[22][23]

Lakana from the west coast with both outriggers and sails are known aslakana fiara (alsolakana piara,laka fihara,lakamfiara,laka fiara, orlaka piaro),^{[1][14][15][11][7]} with thefiara (lit. "palanquin") referring to the raised seat in the middle of the hull.^[24] These are around 6 to 8 m (20 to 26 ft) long and 0.6 to 0.8 m (2.0 to 2.6 ft) wide. The dugout keel oflakana fiara are extended with additionalstrakes on the sides, sometimes as many as thirteen to fifteen different pieces.^{[1][11][7][12]} These are the vessels most commonly used for fishing and passenger transport.^[7][15]

Larger plank-builtlakana are known aslakan-drafitra (lit. "builtlakana" or "assembledlakana") orlakan-pafana (lit. "planklakana).^{[2][20][13][25][26]} These are equipped with multiple benches athwart the hull (which also function as structural support, in lieu of ribs), known assakan’; with the aftmost bench where the steersman sits being known as thesakan’-poulan’.^[2] D'Escamps (1884) reports thatlakan-drafitra can be as large as 10 metres (33 ft) long. The hull are made of around seventeen different pieces (not counting the benches).^[20] This term originally applied to large nativelakana with outriggers,^[27][28] but it has also been used for colonial-era European-style plank boats without outriggers.^[17]

Sea-goinglakana on the eastern coast of Madagascar also typically do not have outriggers or sails.^[2] They are known aslakan’-kan’-ongoutche (lit. "leglakana"). They are generally narrow and longer than thelakana fiara, but they were described as being unstable and capsizing frequently.^[20]

Lakana are most closely associated with theVezo people of the west coast of Madagascar. The Vezo are not considered a "genuine"ethnic group, rather it is a blanket term referring to various semi-nomadic seafaring groups that live along the coast and whose primary livelihood is fishing. The majority of the Vezo are related to the neighboringMasikoro (who are similarly defined by being farmers and herders), but it can refer to anyone from any ethnic group that migrates to the west coast and adopts the coastal way of life.^[1]

Buildinglakana among the Vezo is a communal effort, mostly done by men, though women are not banned. Young Vezo boys are encouraged to help in the easier tasks to gain experience. Discarded pieces of wood are also used by boys to make toy canoes, often precise replicas of thelakana under construction.^[1]

The earliest mention and depiction oflakana was from the account ofWillem Lodewijcksz, aDutch sailor and author, on the first Dutch expedition to theEast Indies. In 1595, the Dutch fleet had anchored to resupply in the port ofSaint Augustin, on the mouth of theOnilahy River in southwest Madagascar. In the bookPremier Livre de la Navigation aux Indes Orientales par les Hollandais (1609), Lodewijcksz describes the native watercraft of the Malagasy people. He repeatedly refers to them as "canoas", using a term borrowed from the watercraft of theArawak people of theCaribbean; though he also specifies that they are "laccas" (laka). He describes them as being shaped likeVenetiangondolas. In the accompanying illustration, the "laccas" are depicted as having double-outriggers in contrast to the modernlakana.^[30][29]

Accounts fromCornelis de Houtman (1595) and Richard Boothby (1644) also mention numerous double-outrigger forms in Saint Augustin. But by 1846, Macé Descartes records that both single and double-outrigger forms now exist, comparing them to similar native boats fromPolynesia.^[2]

Hornell (1920) theorized that the traditional canoes of Madagascar may have originally possessed double-outriggers, derived from the double-outrigger configuration common inIndonesia. It evolved from being double to almost exclusively single-outrigger relatively recently. Hence the historical depictions of double-outriggerlakana by European authors in areas where they are now nonexistent. Hornell mentions surviving examples of true double-outriggers from the mouth of the Sambao River (near the island of Nosy Voalavo,Besalampy) and inCape Sainte Marie. Elsewhere in mainlandEast Africa, double-outrigger forms survive, like theTanzanianngalawa.^[2][31] This conclusion is supported by later authors like Boulinieret al. (1976).^[32]

From around 1790 to 1820,lakan-drafitra with outriggers and sails were recorded as being used by Malagasy warriors in repeated large-scale slave raids on coastal settlements in theComoros and mainlandEast Africa. These raids typically occur at around October each year.^[33][34][27]

European and Comorian accounts described the raiders as having large well-organized fleets, ranging from 150 to 600 large canoes, each capable of carrying twenty to sixty men. The size of the ships and the sailing skills of the raiders suggest that they mainly originate from the northern and northeastern coast of Madagascar. However, the raiders did not originate from one location alone. One account describes a raiding fleet to Comoros as being composed of warriors from different Malagasy ethnic groups; includingAntankarana and Antavaratra people from the north,Sakalava from the west,Betsimisaraka from the east. The establishment of a trade network by the Sakalava Empire may have helped warriors from different regions to coordinate attacks. Parts of the fleets sailed individually from various locations from Madagascar, meeting up with other groups along the way. They halted at the island ofNosy Be to regroup and meet with more ships before continuing onward to the Comoros. During the attack, the raiders would establish a temporary base in one of the islands. From here, they conducted the attacks on surrounding settlements, capturing and enslaving noncombatants and killing the rest. Captured elites would be ransomed off from these temporary bases. They stayed for around seven to eight months before returning to Madagascar. The captured slaves were sold to passing European merchants in theEast African slave trade.^[28]

The motivation for the attacks and even the exact identities of the raiders are still uncertain, but it is believed that they may have started as military intervention to the political conflicts among the differentMuslim sultanates of the Comoro Islands. The raiders may have originally beenmercenaries hired by one of the Comorian sultans to attack rivals, but they got out of control and becamepirates. TheSakalava Empire is believed to not have been involved in the attacks, as evidenced by the fact that Queen Ravahiny once warned the governor-general ofMozambique of an impending attack whom she insisted were not under her command. Each raid seems to have been led by different leaders each year, with none of them identifying as Sakalava or using the names of Sakalava monarchs.^[28]

Lakana are traditionally built from the soft and cork-likefarafatsy wood (Givotia madagascariensis).^[35] However, demand for lumber in boatbuilding has led to the rapid disappearance of largefarafatsy trees. There are efforts to replace the wooden hulls oflakana withfiberglass.^[36]

Lakana are also referred to by the general French terms "pirogue" or "pirogue à balancier."^{[37][38][39][40]} It is differentiated from thebotsy, a larger European-style vessel based on theschooner, originally taught by French shipbuilders to the locals in the 19th century.^[3][41]

Austronesian outrigger and boat-building technologies were also adopted via contact by non-Austronesian groups in neighboring mainlandEast Africa, like theTanzanianngalawa and theFulanilaana.^{[42][43][2][31]}

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• Crab claw sail
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