Lahore's origin dates back to antiquity. The city has been inhabited for around twomillennia, although it rose to prominence in the late 10th century with the establishment of theWalled City, its fortified interior.[24] Lahore served as the capital of several empires during the mediaeval era, including theHindu Shahis,Ghaznavid Empire andDelhi Sultanate. It reached the height of its splendour under theMughal Empire between the late 16th and early 18th centuries, being its capital city for many years. During this period, it was one of the largest cities in the world.[25]The city was captured by the forces of theAfsharid rulerNader Shah in 1739. Although the Mughal authority was re-established, it fell into a period of decay while being contested among theAfghans and the Sikhs between 1748 and 1798, eventually becoming capital of theSikh Empire in the early 19th century. Lahore was annexed to theBritish Raj in 1849 and became the capital ofBritish Punjab.[26] Lahore was central to the independence movements ofBritish India, with the city being the site of both theDeclaration of Indian Independence and theresolution calling for the establishment of Pakistan. It experienced some of the worst rioting during thepartition of British India preceding Pakistan's establishment.[27] Following the success of thePakistan Movement and the subsequent partition in 1947, Lahore was declared the capital of Pakistan's Punjab province.
The origin of Lahore's name is unclear. The city's name has been variously recorded by early Muslim historians asLuhawar,Lūhār, andRahwar.[33] The Iranian polymath and geographer,Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, referred to the city asLuhāwar in his 11th century work,Qanun,[33] while the poetAmir Khusrow, who lived during theDelhi Sultanate period, recorded the city's name asLāhanūr.[34]Yaqut al-Hamawi records the city's name asLawhūr, mentioning that it was famously known asLahāwar.[35] Persian historianFirishta mentions the city asAlahwar in his work, withal-Ahwar being another variation.[36][37]
One theory suggests that Lahore's name is a corruption of the wordRavāwar, as R to L shifts are common in languages derived fromSanskrit.[38]Ravāwar is the simplified pronunciation of the nameIravatyāwar, a name possibly derived from theRavi River, known as the Iravati River in theVedas.[38][39] Another theory suggests the city's name may derive from the wordLohar, meaning "blacksmith".[40]
According to a legend,[41][42] Lahore's name derives fromLavpur orLavapuri (City ofLava),[43] and is said to have been founded by Prince Lava,[44] the son ofSita andRama. The same account attributes the founding of nearbyKasur to his twin brotherKusha,[45] though it was actually established in the 16th century.[46]
No definitive record of Lahore's early history exists, and its ambiguous historical background has given rise to various theories about its establishment and history.[47]
Alexander the Great's historians make no mention of any city near Lahore's location during his invasion in 326 BCE, suggesting the city had not been founded by that point or was not noteworthy.[48]Ptolemy mentions in hisGeography a city calledLabokla situated near theChenab and Ravi rivers which may have been in reference to ancient Lahore, or an abandoned predecessor of the city.[49] Chinese pilgrimXuanzang gave a vivid description of a large and prosperous unnamed city that may have been Lahore when hevisited the region in 630 CE during his tour of India.[50]
The first document that mentions Lahore by name is theHudud al-'Alam ("The Regions of the World"), written in 982 CE,[51] in which Lahore is mentioned as a town which had "impressive temples, large markets and huge orchards".[24][52]
Few other references to Lahore remain from before its capture by theGhaznavid SultanMahmud in the 11th century. During this time, Lahore appears to have served as the capital of Punjab under RajaAnandapala of theÜdi Shahi empire, who moved his capital there from Waihind.[50][53]
TheData Darbar shrine was built to commemorate saintAli Hujwiri, who lived in the city during 11th century.
Sultan Mahmud conquered Lahore between 1020 and 1027, making it part of Ghaznavid Empire.[50] He appointedMalik Ayaz as its governor in 1021. During the reign of SultanIbrahim Malik Ayaz rebuilt and repopulated the city, which had been devastated after the Ghaznavid invasion. He also erected city walls and a masonry fort in 1037–1040 on the ruins of a previous one.[54] During his tenure a confederation of Hindu princes unsuccessfully laid siege to Lahore in 1043–44.[50]
Lahore was formally made the eastern capital of Ghaznavid Empire during the reign ofKhusrau Shah in 1152.[55][56] After the fall of Ghazni in 1163, It became the sole capital.[57] Under their patronage, poets and scholars from other cities of Ghaznavid Empire congregated in Lahore.[58] The city became a cultural and academic centre, renowned forpoetry.[59][60] The entire city of Lahore during the Ghaznavid era was probably located west of the modernShah Alami Bazaar and north of theBhatti Gate.[55]
Mamluk
Following thesiege of Lahore in 1186, theGhurid rulerMuhammad captured the city and imprisoned Khusrau Malik,[50] thus ending Ghaznavid rule over Lahore. Lahore was the first capital of theMamluk dynasty of what would later come to be known as theDelhi Sultanate following the assassination of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206. Under the reign of Mamluk sultanQutb-ud-Din Aibak, Lahore attracted poets and scholars from medievalMuslim World. Lahore at this time had more poets writing in Persian than any other city.[61][62] Following the death of Aibak, Lahore first came under the control of the governor of Multan,Nasir ad-Din Qabacha, and then was briefly captured in 1217 by the sultan in Delhi,Iltutmish.[50]
The threat of Mongol invasions and political instability in Lahore caused future sultans to regard Delhi as a safer capital for the sultanate,[63] even though Delhi was considered a forward base while Lahore was widely considered as the centre of Islamic culture in northeastern Punjab.[63]
Lahore came under progressively weaker central rule under Iltutmish's descendants in Delhi, to the point that governors in the city acted with great autonomy.[50] Actual Sultanate rule on Lahore lasted only a few decades until the locals reclaimed their autonomy.[50] Lahore was sacked and ruined by the Mongol army in 1241,[64] with the Mongols holding the city for a few years under the rule of the Mongol chiefToghrul.[63]
In 1266, sultanBalban reconquered Lahore, but in 1287 under the Mongol rulerTemür Khan,[63] the Mongols again overran northern Punjab. Because of Mongol invasions, Lahore region became a city on a frontier, with the region's administrative centre shifted south toDipalpur.[50] The Mongolsagain invaded northern Punjab in 1298, though their advance was eventually stopped byUlugh Khan, brother of SultanAlauddin Khalji of Delhi.[63] The Mongols again attacked Lahore in 1305.[65]
Tughluq
Lahore briefly flourished again under the reign ofGhiyath al-Din Tughlaq (Ghazi Malik) of theTughluq dynasty between 1320 and 1325, though the city was again sacked in 1329 byTarmashirin of the Central AsianChagatai Khanate, and then again by the Mongol chief Hülechü.[50] Khokhars seized Lahore in 1342,[66] but the city was retaken by Ghazi Malik's son,Muhammad bin Tughluq.[50] The weakened city then fell into obscurity and was captured once more by the Khokhar chiefShaikha in 1394.[67] By the time the Mongol conquerorTimur captured the city in 1398 from Shaikha, he did not loot it because it was no longer wealthy.[47]
Late Sultanates
Timur gave control of the Lahore region toKhizr Khan, governor of Multan, who later established theSayyid dynasty in 1414 – the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.[68] The city was twice besieged byJasrat, the ruler ofSialkot, during the reign ofMubarak Shah, the longest of which being in 1431–32.[63] To combat Jasrat, the city was granted by the Sayyid dynasty toBahlul Lodi in 1441, though Lodi would then displace the Sayyids in 1451 by establishing himself upon the throne of Delhi.[50]
Bahlul Lodi installed his cousin, Tatar Khan, to be governor of the city, though Tatar Khan died in battle withSikandar Lodi in 1485.[69] Governorship of Lahore was transferred by Sikandar Lodi to Umar Khan Sarwani, who quickly left the management of this city to his son Said Khan Sarwani. Said Khan was removed from power in 1500 by Sikandar Lodi, and Lahore came under the governorship ofDaulat Khan Lodi, son of Tatar Khan and former employer ofGuru Nanak, the founder ofSikhism.[69]
Babur, the founder of theMughal Empire, captured and sacked Lahore and Dipalpur, although he retreated after the Lodi nobles backed away from assisting him.[50][70] The city became a refuge toHumayun and his cousinKamran Mirza whenSher Shah Suri rose in power in the Gangetic plains, displacing Mughals. Sher Shah Suri seized Lahore in 1540, though Humayun reconquered Lahore in February 1555.[50] The establishment of Mughal rule eventually led to the most prosperous era of Lahore's history.[50] Lahore's prosperity and central position has yielded more Mughal-era monuments in Lahore than eitherDelhi orAgra.[71]
By the time of the rule of the Mughal empire's greatest emperors, a majority of Lahore's residents did not live within the walled city itself but instead lived in suburbs that had spread outside the city's walls.[55] Only 9 of the 36 urban quarters around Lahore, known asguzars, were located within the city walls during theAkbar period.[55] During this period, Lahore was closely tied to smaller market towns known asqasbahs, such asKasur andEminabad, as well asAmritsar andBatala in modern-day India, which in turn, linked to supply chains in villages surrounding eachqasbah.[55]
Akbar
Beginning in 1584, Lahore became the Mughal capital when Akbar began re-fortifying the city's ruined citadel, laying the foundations for the revival of theLahore Fort.[55] Akbar made Lahore one of his original twelvesubah provinces,[55] and in 1585–86, relegated governorship of the city andsubah toBhagwant Das, brother ofMariam-uz-Zamani, who was commonly known as "Jodhabhai".[72]
The Alamgiri Gate of the Lahore Fort
Akbar also rebuilt the city's walls and extended their perimeter east of the Shah Alami bazaar to encompass the sparsely populated area of Rarra Maidan.[55] The Akbari Mandigrain market was set up during this era, which continues to function to the present-day.[55] Akbar also established theDharampura neighbourhood in the early 1580s, which survives today.[73] The earliest of Lahore's manyhavelis date from the Akbari era.[55]
During the reign of EmperorJahangir in the early 17th century, Lahore's bazaars were noted to be vibrant, frequented by foreigners, and stocked with a wide array of goods.[55] In 1606, Jahangir's rebel sonKhusrau Mirza laid siege to Lahore after obtaining the blessings of the SikhGuru Arjan Dev.[74] Jahangir quickly defeated his son at Bhairowal, and the roots of Mughal–Sikh animosity grew.[74] Sikh Guru Arjan Dev was executed in Lahore in 1606 for his involvement in the rebellion.[75] Emperor Jahangir chose to be buried in Lahore, andhis tomb was built in Lahore'sShahdara Bagh suburb in 1637 by his wifeNur Jahan,whose tomb is also nearby.
Jahangir's son,Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658), was born in Lahore in 1592. He renovated large portions of the Lahore Fort with luxurious white marble and erected the iconicNaulakha Pavilion in 1633.[76] Shah Jahan lavished Lahore with some of its most celebrated and iconic monuments, such as theShalamar Gardens in 1641. His Punjabi viceroy and royal physicianWazir Khan also built a number of monuments in the city, including the extravagantly decoratedWazir Khan Mosque, theWazir Khan Baradari, and theShahi Hammam, during his tenure.[77] The population of pre-modern Lahore probably reached its zenith during his reign, with suburban districts home to perhaps 6 times as many compared to within theWalled City.[55]
Shah Jahan's son,Aurangzeb, last of the great Mughal Emperors, further contributed to the development of Lahore. Aurangzeb built the Alamgiri Bund embankment along the Ravi river in 1662 to prevent its shifting course from threatening the city's walls.[55] The area near the embankment grew into a fashionable locality, with several nearby pleasure gardens laid by Lahore's gentry.[55] The largest of Lahore's Mughal monuments, theBadshahi Mosque, was raised during Aurangzeb's reign in 1673, as well as the iconic Alamgiri Gate of the Lahore fort in 1674.[78]
Late Mughal
TheSunehri Mosque was built in the walled city in the early 18th century, when the Mughal Empire was in decline.
Civil wars regarding succession to the Mughal throne following Aurangzeb's death in 1707 led to weakening control over Lahore from Delhi, and a prolonged period of decline in Lahore.[79] Mughal preoccupation with theMarathas in theDeccan Plateau eventually resulted in Lahore being governed by a series of governors who pledged nominal allegiance to the ever-weaker Mughal emperors in Delhi.[55]
Mughal EmperorBahadur Shah I died enroute to Lahore as part of a campaign in 1711 to subdue Sikh rebels under the leadership ofBanda Singh Bahadur.[50] His sons fought a battle outside Lahore in 1712 for succession to the Mughal crown, withJahandar winning the throne.[50] Sikh rebels were defeated during the reign ofFarrukhsiyar when Abd as-Samad and Zakariyya Khan suppressed them.[50]
Nader Shah's brief invasion of the Mughal Empirein early 1739 wrested control away fromZakariya Khan Bahadur. Though Khan was able to win back control after the Persian armies had left,[50] the trade routes had shifted away from Lahore, and south towardsKandahar instead.[55] Indus ports near the Arabian Sea that served Lahore also silted up during this time, reducing the city's importance even further.[55]
Struggles between Zakariyya Khan's sons following his death in 1745 further weakened Muslim control over Lahore, thus leaving the city in a power vacuum, and vulnerable to foreign marauders.[80]
Durrani invasions
TheDurrani rulerAhmad Shah occupied Lahorein 1748.[50] Following Ahmed Shah Durrani's quick retreat, the Mughals entrusted Lahore to Mu’īn al-MulkMir Mannu.[50] Ahmad Shah again invaded in 1751, forcing Mir Mannu into signing a treaty that nominally subjected Lahore to Durrani rule.[50] Lahore was third time conquered by Ahmad Shahin 1752. The MughalGrand Vizier Ghazi-Din Imad al-Mulk seized Lahore in 1756, provoking Ahmad Shah to invade for fourth time in 1757, after which he placed the city under the rule of his son,Timur Shah.[50]
Durrani rule was interrupted when Lahore was conquered byAdina BegArain with the assistance of Marathas in 1758 during theircampaigns against Afghans.[81] After Adina Beg's untimely death in 1758, however,Marathas temporarily occupied the city. The following year, the Durranis again marched into Lahore and conquered it.[82] After the Durranis withdrew from the city in 1765,Sikh forces quickly occupied it.[50] By this time, the city had been ravaged several time and had lost all of its former grandeur.[55] The Durranis invaded two more times — in 1797 and 1798 — underShah Zaman, but the Sikhs re-occupied the city after both invasions as the Durranis were forced to attend to other problems on their western borders.[50]
Expanding SikhMisls secured control over Lahore in 1767, when theBhangi Misl state captured the city.[83] In 1780, the city was divided among three rulers:Gujjar Singh, Lahna Singh, andSobha Singh. Instability resulting from this arrangement allowed nearbyAmritsar to establish itself as the area's primary commercial centre in place of Lahore.[55]
Ahmad Shah Durrani's grandson, Zaman Shah, captured Lahore in 1796, and again in 1798–99.[50]Ranjit Singh negotiated with the Afghans for the post ofsubahdar to control Lahore following the second invasion.[50]
By the end of the 18th century, the city's population drastically declined, with its remaining residents living within the city walls, while the extramural suburbs lay abandoned, forcing travellers to pass through abandoned and ruined suburbs for a few miles before reaching the city's gates.[55]
In the aftermath of Zaman Shah's 1799 invasion of Punjab, Ranjit Singh, of nearbyGujranwala, began to consolidate his position. Singh was able to seize control of the region after a series of battles with the Bhangi chiefs who had seized Lahore in 1780.[50][84] His army marched to Anarkali, where according to tradition, the gatekeeper of theLohari Gate, Mukham Din Chaudhry, opened the gates allowing Ranjit Singh's army to enter Lahore.[79] After capturing Lahore, Sikh soldiers immediately began plundering Muslim areas of the city until their actions were reined in by Ranjit Singh.[85]
Ranjit Singh's rule restored some of Lahore's lost grandeur, but at the expense of destroying the remaining Mughal architecture for building materials.[55] He established a mint in the city in 1800,[79] and moved into the Mughal palace at the Lahore fort after repurposing it for his own use in governing the Sikh Empire.[87] In 1801, he established aGurdwara Ram Das to mark the site whereGuru Ram Das was born in 1534.
Lahore became the empire's administrative capital, though the nearby economic centre of Amritsar had also been established as the empire's spiritual capital by 1802.[55] By 1812, Singh had mostly refurbished the city's defences by adding a second circuit of outer walls surrounding Akbar's original walls, with the two separated by a moat. Singh also partially restored Shah Jahan's decaying Shalimar Gardens[88] and built theHazuri Bagh Baradari in 1818 to celebrate his capture of theKoh-i-Noor diamond fromShuja Shah Durrani in 1813.[89] He erected theGurdwara Dera Sahib to mark the site ofGuru Arjan Dev's death (1606). The Sikh royal court also endowed religious architecture in the city, including a number of Sikhgurdwaras, Hindu temples, and havelis.[90][91]
TheTomb of Asif Khan was one of several monuments plundered for its precious building materials during the Sikh period.[79][92]
Under Ranjit Singh's rule, Mughal monuments suffered during the Sikh period as his armies plundered most of Lahore's most precious Mughal monuments, and stripped the white marble from several monuments to send to different parts of the Sikh Empire during his reign.[93] Monuments plundered for decorative materials include the Tomb of Asif Khan, the Tomb of Nur Jahan, and the Shalimar Gardens.[79][94] Ranjit Singh's army also desecrated the Badshahi Mosque by converting it into an ammunition depot and a stable for horses.[93] TheSunehri Mosque in the Walled City was also converted to a gurdwara,[95] while the Mariyam Zamani Mosque was repurposed into a gunpowder factory.[96]
TheLahore Durbar underwent a quick succession of rulers after the death of Ranjit Singh. His sonKharak Singh died on 6 November 1840, soon after taking the throne. On that same day, the next appointed successor to the throne,Nau Nihal Singh, died in an accident at the gardens of Hazuri Bagh.[79] MaharajaSher Singh was then selected as Maharajah, though his claim to the throne was quickly challenged byChand Kaur, widow of Kharak Singh and mother of Nau Nihal Singh, who quickly seized the throne.[79] Sher Singh raised an army that attacked Chand Kaur's forces in Lahore on 14 January 1841. His soldiers mounted weaponry on the minarets of the Badshahi Mosque to target Chand Kaur's forces in the Lahore fort, destroying the fort's historicDiwan-e-Aam.[93] Kaur quickly ceded the throne, but Sher Sing was then assassinated in 1843 in Lahore'sChah Miran neighbourhood along with his wazir Dhiyan Singh.[89] Dhyan Singh's son, Hira Singh, sought to avenge his father's death by laying siege to Lahore to capture his father's assassins. The siege resulted in the capture of his father's murderer, Ajit Singh.[79]
Duleep Singh was then crowned Maharajah, with Hira Singh as hiswazir, but his power would be weakened by the continued infighting among Sikh nobles,[79] as well as confrontations against the British during the twoAnglo-Sikh wars.
After the conclusion of the two Anglo-Sikh wars, the Sikh Empire fell into disarray, resulting in the fall of theLahore Durbar, and commencement of British rule after they captured Lahore and the wider Punjab region.[79]
Map of the Old City and environs.The Shah Alami area of Lahore's Walled City in 1890
TheBritish East India Company seized control of Lahore in February 1846 from the collapsing Sikh state and occupied the rest of Punjab in 1848.[55] Following the defeat of the Sikhs at theBattle of Gujrat, British troops formally deposed Maharaja Duleep Singh in Lahore that same year.[55] Punjab was then annexed to the British Indian Empire in 1849.[55]
At the commencement of British rule, Lahore was estimated to have apopulation of 120,000.[97] Prior to annexation by the British, Lahore's environs consisted mostly of theWalled City surrounded by plains interrupted by settlements to the south and east, such asMozang andQila Gujar Singh, which have since been engulfed by modern Lahore. The plains between the settlements also contained the remains of Mughal gardens, tombs, and Sikh-era military structures.[98]
The British viewed Lahore's Walled City as a bed of potential social discontent and disease epidemics, and so largely left the inner city alone, while focusing development efforts in Lahore's suburban areas and Punjab's fertile countryside.[99] The British instead laid out their capital city in an area south of the Walled City that would first come to be known as "Donald's Town" before being renamed "Civil Station".[55]
Under early British rule, formerly prominent Mughal-era monuments that were scattered throughout Civil Station were also re-purposed and sometimes desecrated – including theTomb of Anarkali, which the British had initially converted to clerical offices before re-purposing it as anAnglican church in 1851.[100] The 17th-centuryDai Anga Mosque was converted into railway administration offices during this time, the tomb of Nawab Bahadur Khan was converted into a storehouse, and the tomb of Mir Mannu was used as a wine shop.[101] The British also used older structures to house municipal offices, such as the Civil Secretariat, Public Works Department, and Accountant General's Office.[102]
Constructed in the aftermath of the 1857Sepoy Mutiny, the design of theLahore Railway Station was highly militarised to defend the structure from further uprisings against British rule.
The British built theLahore Railway Station just outside the Walled City shortly after theSepoy Mutiny of 1857; the station was therefore styled as a mediaeval castle to ward off any potential future uprisings, with thick walls, turrets, and holes to direct gun and cannon fire for the defence of the structure.[103] Lahore's most prominent government institutions and commercial enterprises came to be concentrated in Civil Station in a half-mile wide area flankingThe Mall, where unlike in Lahore's military zone, the British and locals were allowed to mix.[104] The Mall continues to serve as the epicentre of Lahore's civil administration, as well as one of its most fashionable commercial areas. The British also laid the spaciousLahore Cantonment to the southeast of the Walled City at the former village of Mian Mir, where unlike around The Mall, laws did exist against the mixing of different races.
The British carried out a census of Lahore in 1901, and counted 20,691 houses in the Walled City.[107] An estimated 200,000 people lived in Lahore at this time.[97] Lahore's poshModel Town was established as a "garden town" suburb in 1921, whileKrishan Nagar locality was laid in the 1930s near The Mall and Walled City.
The Mall, Lahore's pre-independence commercial core, features many examples of colonial architecture.
The future of the city of Lahore wasfiercely contested during partition.[111] According to the 1941 census, the city of Lahore had a population of 671,659, of which was 64.5% Muslim, with the remainder 35% being Hindu and Sikh, alongside a small Christian community.[112][113] This population figure was disputed by Hindus and Sikhs before the Boundary Commission that would draw theRadcliffe Line to demarcate the border of the two new states based on religious demography, who argued that the city was only 54% Muslim based on 1945 ration card figures, and that Hindu and Sikh domination of the city's economy and educational institutions should trump Muslim demography.[112] Two-thirds of shops, and 80% of Lahore's factories belonged to the Hindu and Sikh community.[112] Indian journalist Kuldip Nayar claimed thatCyril Radcliffe had told him in 1971 that he originally had planned to give Lahore to the newDominion of India,[114][115][116] but decided to place it within theDominion of Pakistan, which he saw as lacking a major city as he had already awardedCalcutta to India.[117][114][115]
As tensions grew over the city's uncertain fate, Lahore experiencedPartition's worst riots.[118] Carnage ensued in which all three religious groups were both victims and perpetrators.[119] Early riots in March and April 1947 destroyed 6,000 of Lahore's 82,000 homes.[120] Violence continued to rise throughout the summer, despite the presence of armoured British personnel.[120] Hindus and Sikhs began to leave the cityen masse as their hopes that the Boundary Commission would award the city to India came to be regarded as increasingly unlikely. By late August 1947, 66% of Hindus and Sikhs had left the city.[120] The Shah Alami Bazaar, once a largely Hindu quarter of the Walled City, was entirely burnt down during subsequent rioting.[121]
When Pakistan's independence was declared on 14 August 1947, the Radcliffe Line had not yet been announced, and so cries of "Long live Pakistan" and "God is greatest" were heard intermittently with "Long liveHindustan" throughout the night.[120] On 17 August 1947, Lahore was awarded to Pakistan on the basis of its Muslim majority in the 1941 census and was made capital of the Punjab province in the new state of Pakistan. The city's location near the Indian border meant that it received large numbers of refugees fleeing eastern Punjab and northern India, though it was able to accommodate them given the large stock of abandoned Hindu and Sikh properties that could be re-distributed to newly arrived refugees.[122] In post-partition India, the loss of Lahore catalyzed the development of the newmodernist capital city ofChandigarh.[123]
Partition left Lahore with a much-weakened economy, and a stymied social and cultural scene that had previously been invigorated by the city's Hindus and Sikhs.[124] Industrial production dropped to one-third of pre-Partition level by the end of the 1940s, and only 27% of its manufacturing units were operating by 1950, and usually well-below capacity.[124]Capital flight further weakened the city's economy whileKarachi industrialised and became more prosperous.[124] The city's weakened economy, and proximity to the Indian border, meant that the city was deemed unsuitable to be the Pakistani capital after independence. Karachi was therefore chosen to be the capital on account of its relative tranquility during the Partition period, stronger economy, and better infrastructure.[124]
Sections of theWalled City of Lahore have been under restoration since 2012 in conjunction with theAgha Khan Trust for Culture.
After independence, Lahore slowly regained its significance as an economic and cultural centre of western Punjab. Reconstruction began in 1949 of the Shah Alami Bazaar, the former Hindu-dominated commercial heart of the Walled City prior to its destruction in the 1947 riots.[121] TheTomb of Allama Iqbal was built in 1951 to honour the philosopher-poet who provided the spiritual inspiration for the Pakistan movement.[125] In 1955, Lahore was selected to be the capital of allWest Pakistan during the single-unit period that lasted until 1970.[124] Shortly afterwards, Lahore's iconicMinar-e-Pakistan was completed in 1968 to mark the spot where thePakistan Resolution was passed.[126] With support from theUnited Nations, thegovernment was able to rebuild Lahore, and most scars from the communal violence of Partition were ameliorated.
Lahore as seen from International Space Station.River Ravi flows from North to West. The city is rapidly growing towards the south.
Lahore is in northeastern portion of Pakistan, lying between 31°15′—31°45′ N and 74°01′—74°39′ E. The city is bounded on the north and west by theSheikhupura District, on the east byWagah, and on the south byKasur District. TheRavi River flows on the northern side of Lahore. Lahore city covers a total land area of 404 square kilometres (156 sq mi).
Lahore has ahot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classificationBSh), bordering on ahumid subtropical climate. The hottest month is June, where temperatures routinely exceed 45 °C (113 °F). The monsoon season starts in late June, and the wettest months are July, August and September.[130] with heavy rainfalls and evening thunderstorms with the possibility of cloudbursts and flash floods. The coolest month is January, with dense fog.[131]
The city's record high temperature was 50.4 °C (122.7 °F), recorded on 5 June 2003.[132] On 10 June 2007, a temperature of 48 °C (118 °F) was recorded;[133][134] this was in the shade, and the meteorological office recording the figure reported a heat index in direct sunlight of 55 °C (131 °F).[135] The highest rainfall in a 24-hour period is 337 millimetres (13.3 in), recorded on 1 August 2024.[136]
Climate data for Lahore (1991-2020, extremes 1931-present)
The results of the2017 Census determined the population of Lahore to be 11,126,285,[142] with an annual growth rate of 4.07% since1998.[143] Gender-wise, 52.35% of the population are male, 47.64% are female, and 0.01% are transgender.[143] Lahore is a demographically young city, with over 40% of its inhabitants below the age of 15.[144]
SomePashtun nationalist parties argue that thePashtun population of Lahore in the 2017 census has been underestimated, with Ameer Bahadur Khan, provincial general secretary ofAwami National Party, putting their numbers at 1.5 million, while Gul Muhammad Regwal, a member ofPakhtunkhwa Milli Awami Party, claiming more than 1 million including 300,000 in theWalled City alone, most of these having moved over the last 20 years, including due to military operations, but remaining uncounted as they're not considered permanent residents of Lahore.[147]
According to the 2023 Census, the vast majority of Lahore's population areMuslims (95.26%), up from 94.7% in 2017. Other religions includeChristians (4.64%, slightly less than 5.14% in 2017)[9] and small numbers ofAhmadis,Baháʼís,Hindus,Parsis, andSikhs. There is also a small but longstandingZoroastrian community.
Since Lahore contains some ofSikhism's holiest sites, it is a major pilgrimage destination for Sikhs.[149] Lahore's first church was built during the reign of EmperorAkbar in the late 16th century, but was then levelled byShah Jahan in 1632.[150] Due to the few numbers of Hindus living in Lahore, the only two functional Hindu temples in the city are theShri Krishna Mandir and theValmiki Mandir.[151]
ThePunjabi language is the most-widely spoken native language in Lahore, with 73.58% of Lahore counting it as their first language according to the 2023 Census.[165] Lahore is the largest Punjabi-speaking city in the world. According to the2023 Pakistani census 21.1% speakUrdu, 2.06%Pashto, 2.01%Mewati and 2.78% other mother tongues.[166][167]
Urdu and English are used as official languages and as mediums of instruction and media administration. However, Punjabi is also taught at graduation level and used in theatres, films, and newspapers from Lahore.[168][169] Several Lahore-based prominent educational leaders, researchers, and social commentators have demanded that the Punjabi language should be declared as the medium of instruction at the primary level and be used officially in thePunjab Assembly, Lahore.[170][171]
Cityscape
Old City
Cityscape of Lahore
Lahore's modern cityscape consists of the historicWalled City of Lahore in the northern part of the city, which contains severalWorld Heritage Sites and national heritage sites. Lahore's urban planning was not based on geometric design but was instead built piecemeal, with small cul-de-sacs, askatrahs andgalis developed in the context of neighbouring buildings.[55] Though certain neighbourhoods were named for particular religious or ethnic communities, the neighbourhoods themselves typically were diverse and were not dominated by the namesake group.[55]
Lahore's urban typology is similar to other ancient cities in South Asia, such asPeshawar,Multan andDelhi – all of which were founded near a major river, and included an old walled city and royal citadel.
By the end of the Sikh rule, most of Lahore's massivehaveli compounds had been occupied by settlers. New neighbourhoods occasionally grew up entirely within the confines of an old Mughal haveli, such as the Mohallah Pathan Wali, which grew within the ruins of a haveli of the same name, built by Mian Khan.[55] By 1831, all Mughal Havelis in the Walled City had been encroached upon by the surrounding neighbourhood,[55] leading to the modern-day absence of any Mughal Havelis in Lahore.
A total of thirteen gates once surrounded the historic walled city. Some of the remaining gates include the Raushnai Gate, Masti Gate, Yakki Gate, Kashmiri Gate, Khizri Gate, Shah Burj Gate, Akbari Gate, and Lahori Gate. Southeast of the walled city is the spacious British-eraLahore Cantonment.
By the arrival of the Sikh Empire at the end of the 18th century, rebuilding efforts under Ranjit Singh and his successors were influenced by Mughal practices, and Lahore was known as the 'City of Gardens' during the Ranjit Singh period.[173][174] Later, British maps of the area surrounding Lahore dating from the mid-19th century show many walled private gardens which were confiscated from the Muslim noble families bearing the names of prominent Sikh nobles – a pattern of patronage which was inherited from the Mughals.
While much of Lahore's Mughal-era fabric lay in ruins by the time of his arrival, Ranjit Singh's army's plundered most of Lahore's most precious Mughal monuments, and stripped the white marble from several monuments to send to different parts of the Sikh Empire.[93] Monuments plundered of their marble include theTomb of Asif Khan and theTomb of Nur Jahan; theShalimar Gardens was plundered of much of its marble, and its costlyagate gate was stripped.[79][94] The Sikh state also demolished a number of shrines and monuments laying outside the city's walls.[175]
Still, Sikh rule left Lahore with several monuments, and a heavily altered Lahore Fort. Ranjit Singh's rule restored some of Lahore's previous grandeur,[55] however also damaged or destroyed a number of Mughal historical monuments,[55] Several havelis were built during the Sikh era, though only a few still remain.[55]
British period
A syncretic architectural style that blends Islamic, Hindu, and Western motifs took root during the colonial era, as shown atAitchison College.Much of old Lahore features colonial-era buildings, such as the Tollinton Market.
As the capital of British Punjab, the city derived much of its architecture from British colonialists. Structures were built predominantly in theIndo-Gothic style – a syncretic architectural style that blends elements ofVictorian andIslamic architecture or in the distinctIndo-Saracenic style. The British also builtneoclassical Montgomery Hall, which today serves as theQuaid-e-Azam Library.[177]
Lawrence Gardens were also laid near Civil Station, and were paid for by donations solicited from both Lahore's European community, as well as from wealthy locals. The gardens featured over 600 species of plants, and were tended to by a horticulturist sent from London'sRoyal Botanic Gardens at Kew.[178]
The leafy suburbs to the south of the Old City, as well as the Cantonment southwest of the Old City, were largely developed under British colonial rule, and feature colonial-era buildings built alongside leafy avenues.
Many of Lahore's most important buildings were designed by civil engineer and architectSir Ganga Ram, who is considered "the father of modern Lahore".[179][180][181][182]
Lahore is also known as "the city of gardens" due to its large number of gardens. TheShahdara Bagh was one of the earliestMughal gardens, laid out in 15th century, and contains theTomb of Jahangir. TheShalimar Gardens were laid out during the reign ofShah Jahan and were designed to mimic theIslamic paradise of the afterlife described in theQur'an. The gardens follow the familiarcharbagh layout of four squares, with three descending terraces. In 1818,Hazuri Bagh was built during reign of Ranjit Singh to celebrate his capture of theKoh-i-Noor diamond from Shuja Shah Durrani.
TheLawrence Garden was established in 1862 and was originally named afterSir John Lawrence, late 19th-century British Viceroy to India. The Circular Garden, which surrounds the Walled City on three sides, was established by 1892.[79] The former parade ground adjacent to Badshahi Mosque was also renamed during the British era asMinto Park, which after restoration was re-established as Iqbal Park.
As of 2008[update], the city's gross domestic product (GDP) bypurchasing power parity (PPP) was estimated at $40 billion with a projected average growth rate of 5.6 per cent. This is on par with Karachi, Pakistan's economic hub, with Lahore (having half the population) fostering an economy that is 51% of the size of Karachi's ($78 billion in 2008).[185] It is estimated that Lahore contributes 11.5% to the national economy, and 19% to the provincial economy of Punjab.[186] As a whole, Punjab has a $115 billion economy, making it the first (and to date,[as of?] only) Pakistani Subdivision with an economy of more than $100 billion, at the rank 144[of what?].[185][failed verification] Lahore's GDP is projected to be $102 billion by 2025, with a slightly higher growth rate of 5.6% per annum, as compared to Karachi's 5.5%.[185][187]
A major industrial agglomeration with about 9,000 industrial units, Lahore has shifted in recent decades from manufacturing to service industries.[188] Some 42% of its workforce is employed in finance, banking, real estate, community, cultural, and social services.[188] The city is Pakistan's largest software and hardware producing centre,[188] and hosts a growing computer-assembly industry.[188] The city has always been a centre for publications; 80% of Pakistan's books are published in Lahore, and it remains the foremost centre of literary, educational, and cultural activity in Pakistan.[29]
TheLahore Expo Centre is one of the biggest projects in the history of the city and was inaugurated on 22 May 2010.[189] Defence Raya Golf Resort, now fully operational (as of the 2024), boasts Pakistan's largest and Asia's premier golf course. This luxurious project is a result of a partnership between DHA Lahore and BRDB Malaysia, offering world-class residential, recreational, and commercial facilities. The development of such large-scale projects continues to elevate Lahore's profile, contributing significantly to the national economy.[190] Ferozepur Road of theCentral business districts of Lahore contains high-rises and skyscrapers including Kayre International Hotel andArfa Software Technology Park.
Lahore's main public transportation system is operated by theLahore Transport Company (LTC) and Punjab Mass Transit Authority (PMTA). The backbone of its public transport network is the PMTA'sLahore Metrobus and theOrange Line of theLahore Metro train. LTC and PMTA also operates an extensive network of buses, providing bus service to many parts of the city and acting as a feeder system for the Metrobus. The Orange Line metro spans 27.1 km (16.8 mi) around the city and operates at a speed of 80 km/h (50 mph).
Low occupancy vehicle (LOVs)—functionally a medium-sized van or wagon—run on routes throughout the city. They function like buses and operate on many routes throughout the city.[192]
Metro Train
TheOrange Line is Pakistan's first metro rail line.
TheOrange Line Metro Train is an automatedrapid transit system in Lahore.[193][194] The Orange line is the first of the three proposed rail lines proposed for theLahore Metro. As of 2020, it is the primary metro rail line in the city. The line spans 27.1 km (16.8 mi), with 25.4 km (15.8 mi) elevated and 1.72 km (1.1 mi) underground,[195] and had a cost of 251.06 billionrupees ($1.6 billion). The line consists of 26 subway stations (Ali Town Station to Dera Gujran Station) and is designed to carry over 250,000 passengers daily.CRRC Zhuzhou Locomotive rolled out the first of 27 trains for the metro on 16 May 2017.[196] The train has speed up to 80 km/h (50 mph). For improved durability, itsbogies are heat-resistant, can manage unstable voltage, and feature energy-saving air-conditioning.[197] Successful initial test trials were run in mid-2018,[198] and commercial operations began on 25 October 2020.[199]
Blue Line
The Blue Line is a proposed 24 kilometres (15 mi) line from Chauburji to College Road Township. Along the way, it will connect places like Mozang Chungi, Shadman Chowk, Jail Road, Mian Boulevard Gulberg, Mian Boulevard Garden Town, and Faisal Town.[200]
Purple Line
The Purple Line is a proposed 19 kilometres (12 mi) line from Bhaati Chowk to the Allama Iqbal International Airport. Along the way, it will connect places like Brandreth Road, Railway Station, Allama Iqbal Road, Dharampura, and Ghazi Road.[200]
Taxi and rickshaw
Ride-sharing services such asUber andCareem are available in the city. Motorcycle rides are also available in the city, which have been introduced by private companies.
Auto rickshaws play an important role of public transport in Lahore. As of 2019, there were approximately 82,000 auto rickshaws and 65,000 motorcycle rickshaws in the city.[201] Motorcycle rickshaws, usually calledchingchi[202] (after the Chinese company Jinan Qingqi Motorcycle Co. Ltd, who first introduced these to the market)[citation needed] orchand gari ('moon car')[203] are cheaper than auto rickshaws and provide a shared ride experience for multiple passengers and fares, whereas auto rickshaws cater to only one passenger or group for a fare.[citation needed] Since 2002, all auto rickshaws have been required to usecompressed natural gas as fuel,[204] and all-electric rickshaws were introduced in 2023.[205]
Lahore Badami Bagh Bus Terminal (known colloquially as "Lari Adda") serves as a hub for intercity bus services in Lahore, served by multiple bus companies providing a comprehensive network of services in Punjab and neighbouring provinces.Lahore Jinnah Bus Terminal is also a major bus stand in southern Lahore. Apart from these stations, multiple privately owned bus transportation companies operate from Band Road (referred to colloquially as Chowk Yateem Khana), offering intercity transport at varying fares and comfort levels.
Under Punjab Local Government Act 2013, Lahore is ametropolitan area under the authority of the Metropolitan Corporation Lahore.[213] The Metropolitan Corporation Lahore is a body consisting of nine deputy mayors (one from each zone in the district) and the city's mayor – all of whom are elected in popular elections. The Metropolitan Corporation approves zoning and land use, coordinates urban design and planning, sets environmental protection laws, and provides municipal services.
As per the Punjab Local Government Act 2013, theMayor of Lahore is the elected head of the Metropolitan Corporation of Lahore. The mayor is directly elected in municipal elections every four years alongside 9 deputytown mayors. Mubashir Javed of thePakistan Muslim League (N) was elected mayor of Lahore in 2016. The mayor is responsible for the administration of government services, the composition of councils and committees overseeingLahore City District departments and serves as the chairperson for the meeting of the Lahore Council. The mayor also functions to help devise long-term development plans in consultation with other stakeholders and bodies to improve the condition, livability, and sustainability of urban areas.
Lahore District is a subdivision of the Punjab, and is further divided into 9 administrative zones.[214] Each town in turn consists of a group of union councils, of which there are 274 total.[215]
The people of Lahorecelebrate many festivals and events throughout the year, including Islamic, traditional Punjabi, Christian, and national holidays and festivals.
Some people decorate their houses and light candles to illuminate the streets and houses during public holidays; roads and businesses may be lit for days. Many of Lahore's dozens ofSufi shrines hold annual festivals calledurs to honour their respective saints. For example, the mausoleum ofAli al-Hujwiri at theData Darbar shrine has an annualurs that attracts up to one million visitors per year.[216] TheMela Chiraghan festival in Lahore takes place at the shrine ofMadho Lal Hussain, while other largeurs take place at the shrines ofBibi Pak Daman, and at theShrine of Mian Mir.[217]Eid ul-Fitr andEid ul-Adha are celebrated in the city with public buildings and shopping centres decorated in lights. The people of Lahore also commemorate the martyrdom ofImam Husayn atKarbala with massive processions that take place during the first ten days of the month ofMuharram.[218]
Basant is a traditionalPunjabi festival that marks the coming of spring. Basant celebrations in Pakistan are centred in Lahore, and people from all over the country and abroad come to the city for the annual festivities.Kite-flying competitions traditionally take place on city rooftops during Basant, while theLahore Canal is decorated with floating lanterns. Courts have banned kite-flying because of casualties and power installation losses. The ban was lifted for two days in 2007, then immediately reimposed when 11 people were killed bycelebratory gunfire, sharp kite-strings, electrocution, and falls related to the competition.[219]
Lahore's churches are elaborately decorated forChristmas andEaster celebrations.[220] Shopping centres and public buildings also feature Christmas installations to celebrate the holiday, even though Christians only constitute 5.1% of the total population of Lahore in 2024. SeeReligion in Lahore[221]
The city is home to Muslim historical religious sites, most prominently theBadshahi Mosque, constructed in 1673; it was the largest mosque in the world upon construction. Another popular sight is theWazir Khan Mosque,[224] constructed in 1635 and known for its extensivefaience tile work.[225]Data Darbar, near the Old City of Lahore, is the largest Sufi shrine in South Asia.[226] Apart from Islam, two functional Hindu temples exist: theKrishna Temple andValmiki Mandir. TheSamadhi of Ranjit Singh, also located near the Walled City, houses thefunerary urns of theSikh rulerMaharaja Ranjit Singh.
Whereas the Walled City reflects Lahore's historic grandeur, Defence Raya Golf Resort contributes to the city's modern side. Other posh areas includeGulberg,Iqbal Town and theNahr.[227][228]
There are manyhavelis inside the Walled City of Lahore, some in good condition while others need urgent attention. Many of these havelis are fine examples ofMughal andSikh architecture. Some of the havelis inside the Walled City include:
Lahore is sometimes considered Pakistan's educational capital,[citation needed] with more colleges and universities than any other city in Pakistan. The literacy rate of Lahore is 74%. The city is Pakistan's largest producer of professionals in the fields of science, technology, IT, law, engineering, medicine, nuclear sciences, pharmacology, telecommunication, biotechnology, microelectronics, and nanotechnology, and has the only future hyper high-tech centre[clarification needed] in Pakistan.[229]Most of the reputable universities are public, but in recent years there has also been an upsurge in the number of private universities. Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS) is the onlyAACSB accredited business school in Pakistan. Lahore hosts some of Pakistan's oldest and best educational institutes, including:
Lahore has successfully hosted many international sports events, including the finals of the1990 Men's Hockey World Cup and the1996 Cricket World Cup. The headquarters of all major sports governing bodies in Pakistan are located in Lahore, including cricket, hockey, rugby, and football.[citation needed] Lahore is also home to the head office of thePakistan Olympic Association.
Lahore is home to severalgolf courses, including theLahore Gymkhana Golf Course, the Lahore Garrison Golf and Country Club, the Royal Palm Golf Club, and newly built Defence Raya Golf & Country Club. Lake City, a 9-hole course, opened in nearbyRaiwind Road in 2011. The newly opened Oasis Golf and Aqua Resort is a state-of-the-art resort, featuring golf, water parks, and leisure activities like horse riding and archery.
TheLahore Marathon is part of an annual package of six international marathons sponsored byStandard Chartered Bank across Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. More than 20,000 athletes from Pakistan and all over the world participate in this event. It was first held on 30 January 2005, and again on 29 January 2006. More than 22,000 people participated in the 2006 race. The third marathon was held on 14 January 2007.[231][failed verification] Plans exist to build Pakistan's first sports city in Lahore, on the bank of theRavi River.[232][better source needed]
In 1966, theGovernment of Pakistan awarded a special flag, theHilal-i-istaqlal, to the cities of Lahore,Sargodha, andSialkot for showing severe resistance to the enemy during theIndo-Pakistani War of 1965, as these cities were targets of the Indian aggression.[240] Every year onDefence Day (6 September), this flag is hoisted in these cities in recognition of the will, courage, and perseverance of their people.[241]
^"History". 22 April 2008. Archived fromthe original on 29 December 2008. Retrieved16 September 2011.
^Shelley, Fred (16 December 2014).The World's Population: An Encyclopedia of Critical Issues, Crises, and Ever-Growing Countries. ABC-CLIO. p. 356.ISBN978-1-61069-506-0.Lahore is the historic center of the Punjab region of the northwestern portion of the Indian subcontinent
^"Lahore attack: Pakistan PM Sharif demands swift action on terror".BBC. 28 March 2016.Archived from the original on 16 December 2021. Retrieved19 August 2016.Lahore is one of Pakistan's most liberal and wealthy cities. It is Mr Sharif's political powerbase and has seen relatively few terror attacks in recent years.
^Kudaisya & Yong (2004), p. 175, :"Of all the capital cities caught in the drama of partition, it was Lahore that experienced the worst of the violence and carnage that took place in 1947. It became the most disputed territory in the claims and counter claims that were made before the Boundary Commission. All three communities of the Punjab—Muslims, Sikhs and Hindus—staked a claim to it. The violence which Lahore experienced was unprecedented even by the horrific standards of 1947, and when it had subsided, what emerged was a city which had been completely 'cleansed' of its 'minority' communities.".
^Haroon Khalid (31 December 2018)."How old is Lahore? The clues lie in a blend of historical fact and expedient legend".Dawn.Archived from the original on 1 January 2019. Retrieved1 January 2019.A legend subsequently grew that connected the history of the city with Valmiki's Ramayana. According to this narrative, Valmiki lived on a mound on the banks of the Ravi when he hosted Ram's consort Sita after she was banished from Ayodhya. It is here that she gave birth Lav and Kush, the princes of Ayodhya, who later founded the twin cities of Lahore and Kasur.
^Charles Umpherston Aitchison (2002).Lord Lawrence and the Reconstruction of India Under the British Rule. Genesis Publishing. p. 54.ISBN9788177551730.
^"Short Cuts".The Economist. 19 March 2016.Archived from the original on 19 August 2016. Retrieved19 August 2016.For centuries Lahore was the heart of Mughal Hindustan, known to visitors as the City of Gardens. Today it has a greater profusion of treasures from the Mughal period (the peak of which was in the 17th century) than India's Delhi or Agra, even if Lahore's are less photographed.
^Aryan, K. C. (1983). "Golden Temple".The Cultural Heritage of Punjab, 3000 B.C. to 1947 A.D. New Delhi: Rekha. p. 64.ISBN978-81-900002-9-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
^Axworthy, Michael (2010).Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant. I.B. Tauris. p. 195.ISBN978-0-85773-347-4.
^Roy, Kaushik (2004).India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil. Permanent Black, India. pp. 80–1.ISBN978-81-7824-109-8.
^Mehta, J.L. (2005). Advanced study in the history of modern India 1707–1813. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 260.ISBN978-1-932705-54-6. Retrieved 23 September 2010.
^abGlover (2008), p. [page needed]. "By the turn of the twentieth century, Lahore's population had nearly doubled from what it had been when the province was first annexed, growing from an estimated 120,000 people in 1849 to over 200,000 in 1901."
^Glover (2008), p. [page needed]. "On the eve of annexation, Lahore's suburbs were made up of a flat, debris-strewn plain interrupted by a small number of populous abadis, the deserted cantonment and barracks of the former Sikh infantry (which, according to one British large buildings in various states of disrepair."
^Glover (2008), p. [page needed]. "The inner city, on the other hand, remained problematic. Seen as a potential hotbed of disease and social instability, and notoriously difficult to observe and fathom, the inner districts of the city remained stubbornly resistant to colonial intervention. Throughout the British period of occupation in Punjab, for reasons we will explore more fully, the inner districts of its largest cities were almost entirely left alone. 5 The colonial state made its most significant investments in suburban tracts outside of cities... It should not surprise us that the main focus of imperial attention in Punjab was its fertile countryside rather than cities like Lahore."
^Glover (2008), p. [page needed]. "What is more striking than the fact that Punjab's new rulers (cost-effectively) appropriated the symbolically charged buildings of their predecessors is how long some of those appropriations lasted. The conversion of the Mughal-era tomb of Sharif un-Nissa, a noblewoman during Shah Jahan's reign, popularly known as Anarkali, was one such case (Figure 1.2). This Muslim tomb was first used as offices and residences for the clerical staff of Punjab's governing board. In 1851, however, the tomb was converted into the Anglican church."
^Glover (2008), p. [page needed]. "the mosque of Dai Anga, Emperor Shah Jahan's wet nurse, which the British converted first into a residence and later into the office of the railway traffic manager. Nearby was the tomb of Nawab Bahadur Khan, a highly placed member of Akbar's court, which the railway used as a storehouse... manager. Nearby was the tomb of Nawab Bahadur Khan, a highly placed member of Akbar's court, which the railway used as a storehouse. That same tomb had been acquired earlier by the railway from the army, who had used it as a theatre for entertaining officers. The railway provided another nearby tomb free of charge to the Church Missionary Society, who used it for Sunday services. The tomb of Mir Mannu, an eighteenth-century Mughal viceroy of Punjab who had brutally persecuted the Sikhs while he was in power, escaped demolition by the railway but was converted nevertheless into a private wine merchant's shop."
^Glover (2008), p. [page needed]. "with an abundance of abandoned large structures scattered throughout the civil station on nazul (state administered) property, the colonial government often chose to house major institutions in converted buildings rather than to build anew. These institutions included the Civil Secretariat, which, as we have seen, was located in Ventura's former house; the Public Works from Ranjit Singh's period; and the Accountant General's office, headquartered in a converted seventeenth century mosque near the tomb of Shah Chiragh, just off Mall Road."
^Glover (2008), p. [page needed]. "The Lahore station, built during a time when securing British civilians and troops against a future "native" uprising was foremost in the government's mind, fortified mediaeval castle, complete with turrets and crenellated towers, battered flanking walls, and loopholes for directing rifle and cannon fire along the main avenues of approach from the city."
^abGlover (2008), p. [page needed]. "We should remember that outside of colonial military cantonments, where rules encouraging racial separation were partially formalized in the residential districts of India's colonial cities. Wherever government institutions, commercial enterprises, and places of public congregation were concentrated, mixing among races and social classes was both legally accommodated and necessary. In Lahore these kinds of activities were concentrated in a half-mile-wide zone stretching along Mall Road from the Civil Secretariat, near Anarkali's tomb, at one end to the botanical gardens at the other."
^abGlover (2008), p. [page needed]. "As a gesture of loyalty, Punjab's "Princes, Chiefs, merchants, men of local note, and the public generally" formed a subscription to erect the "Victoria Jubilee Institute for the Promotion and Diffusion of Technical and Agricultural Education and Science" in Lahore, a complex that eventually formed the nucleus of the city's museum and the Mayo School of Art (completed in 1894)."
^Glover (2008), p. [page needed]. "According to the 1901 census, therefore, the inner city of Lahore contained exactly 20,691 "houses"."
^"Republic Day".The Tribune.Archived from the original on 29 January 2015. Retrieved15 March 2011.
^Kaul, Pyarelal (1991).Crisis in Kashmir. Suman Publications. p. 42.Under Radcliffe Award, Lahore was to have gone to India and not to Pakistan. The Arbitrator Radcliffe, announced to the representatives of India and Pakistan that Lahore had fallen to the lot of India.
^"Lahore Climate Normals 1991–2020".World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved17 September 2023.
^Glover (2008), p. [page needed]. "Montgomery Hall faced inward, toward the main avenue of what would become a and reading room, a teak dance and a "rinking" floor (skating rink), and room for the Gymkhana Club. Lawrence Hall was devoted to the white community in Lahore; the spaces and programme of Montgomery Hall allowed for racial interaction between British civilians and officials and the elites of Lahori society."
^Glover (2008), p. [page needed]. "Like Lawrence and Montgomery Halls, moreover, the garden's major elements were all financed through a combination of provincial, municipal, and private funds from both British carefully isolated space of controlled cultural interaction underwritten by elite collaboration. Both the botanical garden and the zoo in Lawrence Gardens drafted a controlled display of exotic nature to the garden's overall didactic programme. The botanical garden exhibited over six hundred species of plants, trees, and shrubs, all carefully tended by a horticulturist sent out from the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew."
^QAM; Sheharyar Rizwan; Kalbe Ali; Shakeel Ahmed; Mohammad Hussain Khan; Zulfiqar Ali; Saleem Shahid (8 September 2019)."Muharram: Walking the Mourners' Path".Dawn.Archived from the original on 18 June 2020. Retrieved18 June 2020.
^"Lei nº 6.105/2016" (in Portuguese). Câmara Municipal do Rio de Janeiro. 25 November 2016.Archived from the original on 29 November 2016. Retrieved28 November 2016.
Wink, André (2002a).Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Vol. I, early medieval India and the expansion of Islam, 7th-11th centuries. Boston and Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN0-391-04173-8.
Wink, André (2002b).Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Vol. II, the Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest, 11th–13th centuries. Boston and Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN0-391-04174-6.
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