The earliest people known as "Kyrgyz" were the descendants of several Central Asian tribes, first emerging in westernMongolia around 201 BC. Modern Kyrgyz people are descended in part from theYenisei Kyrgyz that lived in theYenisey river valley inSiberia. The Kyrgyz people were constituents of theTiele people, theGöktürks, and theUyghur Khaganate before establishing theYenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate in the 9th century, and later a Kyrgyz khanate in the 15th century.[14][15][16]
Etymology
There are several theories on the origin ofethnonymKyrgyz. It is often said to be derived from theTurkic wordkyrk ("forty"), with -iz being an old plural suffix, soKyrgyz literally means "a collection of forty tribes".[17] It also means "imperishable", "inextinguishable", "immortal", "unconquerable" or "unbeatable", as well as its association with the epic heroManas, who – according to afounding myth – unified the 40 tribes against theKhitans. A rival myth, recorded in 1370 in theHistory of Yuan, concerns 40 women born on asteppe motherland.[18]
Nomads in Kyrgyzstan
The earliest records of the ethnonym appear to have been the Chinese transcriptionsGekun (鬲昆,LH *kek-kuən <Old Chinese: *krêk-kûn) andJiankun (堅昆,LH *ken-kuən <OC: *kên-kûn). Those suggest that the original ethnonym was *kirkur ~ kirgur and/or *kirkün, and another transcriptionJiegu (結骨,EMC: *kέt-kwət) suggests *kirkut / kirgut.Yury Zuev proposed that the ethnonym possibly means 'field people, fieldHuns' (cf.Tiele tribal name 渾Hún <MC *ɣuən).[19]Peter Golden reconstructs *Qïrğïz < *Qïrqïz< *Qïrqïŕ and suggests a derivation fromOld Turkicqır 'gray' (horse color) plus suffix-q(X)r/ğ(X)r ~k(X)z/g(X)z.[20][21] Besides, Chinese scholars later used a number of different transcriptions for the Kyrgyz people: these includeGegu (紇骨),Jiegu (結骨),Hegu (紇骨),Hegusi (紇扢斯),Hejiasi (紇戛斯),Hugu (護骨),Qigu (契骨), orJuwu (居勿), and then, during the reign ofTangEmperor Wuzong,Xiajiasi (黠戛斯), said to mean "red face".[22][23]Edwin G. Pulleyblank surmises that "red face" was possibly afolk etymology provided by an interpreter who explained the ethnonym based onTurkicqïzïl ~qizqil, meaning 'red'.[24] By the time of theMongol Empire, the ethnonym's original meaning had apparently been forgotten – as was shown by variations in readings of it across different reductions of theHistory of Yuan. This may have led to the adoption ofKyrgyz and its mythical explanation.[citation needed]
During the 18th and 19th centuries, European writers used the early Romanized formKirghiz – from the contemporary Russianкиргизы – to refer not only to the modern Kyrgyz, but also to their more numerous northern relatives, theKazakhs. When distinction had to be made, more specific terms were used:the Kyrgyz proper were known as theKara-Kirghiz ("Black Kirghiz", from the colour of their tents),[25]and the Kazakhs were named theKirghiz-Kaisak [kk][26][27] or "Kirghiz-Kazak".[25]
The oldest notes about a definite mention of the Kyrgyz ethnonym originate from the 6th century. The Kyrgyz as an ethnic group are mentioned quite unambiguously during the time ofGenghis Khan's rule (1162–1227), when their name replaces the former name Khakas.[38]
A Kyrgyz family
18th-century Qing administrators referred to the Kyrgyz by the nameBulute.[39][40]
Possible Yenisei Kyrgyz affiliation
TheYenisei Kyrgyz, whose 9–10th century migration to theTienshan area was of "particularly great importance for the formative process" of the modern Kyrgyz,[41] have their origins in the western parts of modern-dayMongolia and first appear in written records in the Chinese annals of theSima Qian'sRecords of the Grand Historian (compiled 109–91 BCE) asGekun (鬲昆,隔昆) orJiankun (堅昆).[22] The Middle Age Chinese compositionTang Huiyao of the 8–10th century transcribed the name "Kyrgyz" asJiegu (Kirgut), and theirtamga was depicted as identical to the tamga of the present-day Kyrgyz tribes Azyk, Bugu, Cherik, Sary Bagysh and a few others.[42]
The description of the Yenisei Kyrgyz as "large, with red hair, white faces, and green or blue eyes" in theNew Book of Tang (11th century) have tempted a number of researchers to assume that the Kyrgyz may have originally been non-Turkic or at least an ethnically mixed people with a large non-Turkic element.[43] TheNew Book of Tang did not consider the Yenisei Kyrgyz to be the same as theTiele people, but states that they had the same language and script as theUyghurs, who were part of the Tiele tribes. The Yenisei Kyrgyz were described to look similar to the neighboring "Boma tribe" (Basmyl), who did not share the same language, implying that the Yenisei Kyrgyz may have originally been a non-Turkic people. According to theYou yang za zu by Duan Chengshi in the 9th century AD, the Yenisei Kyrgyz were not of wolf descent, unlike theTürks, but were born in a cave north of the Quman Mountain as the offspring of a god and a cow. Based on these historical descriptions, Lee & Kuang suggest that the Yenisei Kyrgyz were turcophone, but may have been of non-Turkic origin, and wereTurkified through inter-tribal marriage.[44] Contemporary Persian writerGardizi recounted a legend that ascribed these traits toSaqaliba ancestry in the tribe.[45]
In 840, a revolt led by the Yenisei Kyrgyz brought down the Uyghur Khaganate, and brought the Yenisei Kyrgyz to a dominating position in the formerSecond Turkic Khaganate. With the rise to power, the center of the Kyrgyz Khaganate moved toJeti-su, and brought about a spread south of the Kyrgyz toTian Shan andXinjiang, bringing them into contact with the existing peoples of what is nowWestern China, especially theTibetan Empire.
TheKhagans of the Yenisei Kirghiz Khaganate claimed descent from the Han Chinese generalLi Ling, which was mentioned in the diplomatic correspondence between the Kirghiz khagan and theTang dynasty emperor, since the Tang imperial Li family claimed descent from Li Ling's grandfather,Li Guang.[46] The Kirghiz qaghan assisted the Tang dynasty in destroying the Uyghur Khaganate and rescuing thePrincess Taihe from theUyghurs. They also killed a Uyghur khagan in the process.
Then Kyrgyz quickly moved as far as theTian Shan range and maintained their dominance over this territory for about 200 years. In the 12th century, however, Kyrgyz domination had shrunk to theAltai andSayan Mountains as a result ofMongol expansion. With the rise of theMongol Empire in the 13th century, the Kyrgyz migrated south. In 1207, after the establishment ofYekhe Mongol Ulus (Mongol empire), Genghis Khan's oldest sonJochi occupied Kyrgyzstan without resistance. The state remained a Mongol vassal until the late 14th century. VariousTurkic peoples ruled them until 1685, when they came under the control of theOirats (Dzungars), which lasted until1757. Many Kyrgyz tribes that had fled the Dzungars returned to modern Kyrgyzstan at this time.[47]
Kyrgyz women offering butter and salt
By the 16th century, the carriers of the ethnonymKirgiz lived in SouthSiberia, Xinjiang, Tian Shan,Pamir-Alay,Middle Asia,Urals (amongBashkirs), and inKazakhstan.[48] In the Tian Shan and Xinjiang area, the termKyrgyz retained its unifying political designation, and became a general ethnonym for the Yenisei Kirgiz and other Turkic tribes that presently constitute the Kyrgyz population.[49] Though it is impossible to directly identify theYenisei andTien Shan Kyrgyz, a trace of their ethnogenetical connections is apparent in archaeology, history, language and ethnography. A majority of modern researchers came to the conclusion that the ancestors of Kyrgyz tribes had their origin in the most ancient tribal unions ofSakas/Scythians,Wusun/Issedones,Dingling,Mongols, andHuns.[50]
Genetics
Kyrgyz eagle hunter
Haplogroups
The genetic makeup of the Kyrgyz is consistent with their origin as a mix of tribes.[51][52] For instance, 63% of modern Kyrgyz men ofJumgal District[53] belong to the paternalhaplogroup R1a1. Low diversity of Kyrgyz R1a1 indicates afounder effect within the historical period.[54] Other groups of Kyrgyz especially Southwest Kyrgyz show a considerably lower frequency of haplogroup R.[55][56] The other main haplogroups of modern Kyrgyz arehaplogroup C-M217 at 12–20%,haplogroup O-M175 at 0–15%, andhaplogroup N-M231 at around 4.5%.[44]
Depending on the geographical location of samples, West EurasianmtDNA haplogroup lineages make up 27% to 42.6% in the Kyrgyz,[57] with haplogroupmtDNA H being the most predominant West Eurasian mtDNA haplogroup at about 14.2% (range 8.3% Talas to 21.3% Sary-Tash) among the Kyrgyz. However, the majority of Kyrgyz belong to East Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups, with mtDNAhaplogroup D (approx. 20.2%,[57][58] range 14.6% Talas to 25.5% Sary-Tash[57]) and D4 in particular (approx. 18.5%[57][58]) being the most frequent Eastern Eurasian lineage among them.[57]
Population structure of Turkic-speaking populations in the context of their geographic neighbors across Eurasia; modern Kyrgyz derive the majority of ancestry from Ancient Northeast Asian sources, compactible with the inferred Turkic homeland in 'Southern Siberia and Mongolia'.[59]
Autosomal DNA
A 2011 study of autosomal ancestry found that East Eurasian ancestry is predominant in most Kyrgyz living in Kyrgyzstan. East Eurasian ancestry makes up roughly two-thirds with exceptions of Kyrgyz living in Tajikistan and the western areas of Kyrgyzstan, where it forms only half.[60] A 2022 study found that Kyrgyz people derive most of their ancestry from Northern East Asian sources. Kyrgyz from China were found to have more West Eurasian-like ancestry than the Kyrgyz from Kyrgyzstan. The Kyrgyz are inferred to derive most of their ancestry from "Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Age populations from northern China and Mongolia" (59.3–69.8%), suggesting "genetic continuity" with them. Their West Eurasian-like ancestry (24.9–37.5%) is represented by a combination of Bronze AgeWestern Steppe Herders and "Iranian Farmer-related" ancestries (BMAC). They also harbor minor ancestry associated with the earliestTarim mummies (3.2–5.3%).[61]
A 2023 study analyzed the genome of 70 Kyrgyz individuals fromSouthern Xinjiang (SXJK). The authors found that the SXJK samples display genetic heterogenity and form two clusters along a 'Turkic cline', which stretched fromEast Asians at the one end to "Indo-Europeans" at the other end. The main cluster had 63.3–83.3%Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry, with the remainder ancestry being derived from West Eurasian (Western Steppe Herders) and Tarim_EMBA-like sources, and displayed high genetic affinity toKazakhs and contemporary Kyrgyz from Kyrgyzstan. The secondary cluster had 47.2–55.6% Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry and higher West Eurasian ancestry, particularly via additional BMAC-related admixture (9.1–27.8%), and clustered closer to modernUyghurs.[62]
Kyrgyz are predominantlyMuslims of theHanafi school ofSunni Islam.[63]Islam was first introduced by Arab traders who travelled along theSilk Road in the 7th and 8th centuries. In the 8th century, orthodox Islam reached theFergana Valley with theUzbeks. However, in the 10th-century Persian textHudud al-'Alam, the Kyrgyz were still described as a people who "venerate the Fire and burn the dead".[64]
The Kyrgyz began to convert to Islam in the mid-17th century. Sufi missionaries played an important role in the conversion. By the 19th century, the Kyrgyz were considered devout Muslims and some performed theHajj.[65]
Atheism has some following in the northern regions under Russian communist influence. A few cultural rituals ofShamanism are practiced to this day, particularly in Central Kyrgyzstan. During a July 2007 interview,Bermet Akayeva, the daughter ofAskar Akayev, the former President of Kyrgyzstan, stated that Islam was increasingly taking root, even in the northern regions which had been under communist influence.[66] She emphasized that manymosques have been built and that the Kyrgyz are "increasingly devoting themselves to Islam".[67]
Many ancient indigenous beliefs and practices, including shamanism andtotemism, coexisted syncretically with Islam. Shamans, most of whom are women, still play a prominent role at funerals, memorials, and other ceremonies and rituals. This split between the northern and southern Kyrgyz in their religious adherence to Muslim practices can still be seen today. Likewise, the Sufi order of Islam has been one of the most active Muslim groups in Kyrgyzstan for more than a century.[68]
Safavid Iran exerted some religious and cultural influence into Central Asia. This influence reached certain Turkic tribes, including some Kyrgyz clans, leading to their conversion to Shia Islam. Twelverism was dominant among the Kyrgyz Shias.[69] Some Kyrgyz Shias in the Pamir Mountains and adjacent areas were influenced by Nizari Ismaili teachings.[70] The Kyrgyz tribes located near Badakhshan, Hazarajat, and parts of Tajikistan came into contact with established Ismaili Shia communities.[71] There had also been Kyrgyz Shia communities in eastern Kyrgyzstan, near borders with Tajikistan and China, where distinct Shia religious traditions persisted alongside Kyrgyz nomadic culture. In northern Afghanistan, the Kyrgyz Shias also integrated Shia Islam with their local cultural practices.[72][73] Kyrgyz Shias in Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan all remained marginalized due to their small numbers and the dominant Sunni national identity in all countries.[74][75]
The suppression of the1916 rebellion againstRussian rule in Central Asia caused many Kyrgyz later to migrate toChina and Afghanistan. Most of the Kyrgyz refugees in Afghanistan settled in theWakhan region. Until 1978, the northeastern portion of Wakhan was home to about 3–5 thousand ethnic Kyrgyz.[79][80] In 1978, most Kyrgyz inhabitantsfled to Pakistan in the aftermath of theSaur Revolution. They requested 5,000 visas from the United States consulate inPeshawar for resettlement inAlaska, a state of the United States which they thought might have a similar climate and temperature with theWakhan Corridor. Their request was denied. In the meantime, the heat and the unsanitary conditions of the refugee camp were killing off the Kyrgyz refugees at an alarming rate.Turkey, which was under the military coup rule of GeneralKenan Evren, stepped in, and resettled the entire group in theLake Van region of Turkey in 1982. The village ofUlupamir (or "Great Pamir" in Kyrgyz) inErciş inVan Province was given to these, where more than 5,000 of them still reside today. The documentary film37 Uses for a Dead Sheep – the Story of the Pamir Kirghiz was based on the life of these Kyrgyz in their new home.[81][82] Some Kyrgyz returned to Wakhan in October 1979, following theSoviet occupation of Afghanistan.[83] They are found around theLittle Pamir.[84]
In the 19th century, Russian settlers on traditional Kirghiz land drove a lot of the Kirghiz over the border to China, causing their population to increase in China.[86] Compared to Russian controlled areas, more benefits were given to the Muslim Kirghiz on the Chinese controlled areas. Russian settlers fought against the Muslim nomadic Kirghiz, which led the Russians to believe that the Kirghiz would be a liability in any conflict against China. The Muslim Kirghiz were sure that in an upcoming war, China would defeat Russia.[87]
A peculiar group, also included under the "Kyrgyz nationality" by the PRC official classification, are the so-called "Fuyu Kyrgyz". It is a group of several hundredYenisei Kirghiz (Khakas people) people whose forefathers were relocated from the Yenisei river region toDzungaria by theDzungar Khanate in the 17th century, and upon defeat of the Dzungars by theQing dynasty, they were relocated from Dzungaria to Manchuria in the 18th century, and who now live in Wujiazi Village inFuyu County,Heilongjiang Province. Their language (theFuyü Gïrgïs dialect) is related to theKhakas language.[91]
Kyrgyz are the onlyTurkic people native to Pakistan. The Kyrgyz in Pakistan live mostly in the north, primarilyChitral, where Kyrgyz is the only Turkic language spoken in Pakistan.[96] There are only a few thousand left, and many have assimilated withPashtun or theKho.[97] They used to dominate the region ofGilgit-Baltistan. There are alsoAfghan refugees of Kyrgyz origin in Pakistan.[98] Some also come from Kyrgyzstan from theSoviet-Afghan War where some defected and settled in Pakistan. There are also Kyrgyz nationals who work in Pakistan.
United States
The Kyrgyz American Foundation (KAF) is a US registered non-profit organization with the mission to strengthen civil, humanitarian, cultural and business ties between Kyrgyzstan and the United States by advancing intercultural awareness and cooperation. While preserving the multicultural heritage of Kyrgyzstan, KAF strives to cultivate a strong sense of identity for Kyrgyz Americans living in the US through cultural and educational initiatives.[99]
Kyrgyz-Washington Sister Region Organization was established in 2019. The organization is governed by a board of directors consisting of business, government, and community leaders, as well as ordinary citizens, inWenatchee, Washington. The mission of the Kyrgyz-Washington Sister Region Organization is to foster cross-cultural understanding and professional development between Kyrgyzstan and Washington State. The mission is carried out through exchanges of delegations between the two regions and by undertaking professional analysis and advances in Kyrgyzstan and Washington State in the areas of agricultural development, outdoor recreational tourism, and water resource management.[100]
Notable people
Lavr Kornilov, Russian military intelligence officer, explorer, and general in the Imperial Russian Army
^"Kazakhstan population by ethnic groups".Demographic Statistics. 18. Agency for Strategic Planning and Reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan: Bureau of National Statistics. 22 April 2024. Retrieved26 August 2025.
^Fahlbusch, Erwin; Lochman, Jan Milíč; Mbiti, John; Pelikan, Jaroslav; Vischer, Lukas; Bromiley, Geoffrey W.; Barrett, David B. (2003).The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Eerdmans and Brill. p. 144.ISBN978-0-8028-2415-8. "Various Kyrgyz tribes began creating an independent khanate during the 15th century with a distinctive Kyrgyz language."
^Everett-Heath, Tom (8 December 2003).Central Asia: Aspects of Transition. Routledge. p. 107.ISBN978-1-135-79823-9. "Chingis Khan and his Mongol descendants held sway over the area from the thirteenth century until the fifteenth century, when an autonomous Kyrgyz khanate was established."
^Zuev, Yu.A.,Horse Tamgas from Vassal Princedoms (Translation of Chinese composition "Tanghuyao" of 8–10th centuries), Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciences, Alma-Ata, 1960, p. 103(in Russian)
^Zuev Yu.A.,Horse Tamgas from Vassal Princedoms (translation of 8–10th century Chinese Tanghuiyao), Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciences, Alma-Ata, 1960, p. 103, 128 (in Russian)
^Vasily Bartold (1963).Тянь-Шаньские киргизы в XVIII и XIX веках [The Tian Shan Kirghiz in the 18th and 19th centuries].Киргизы. Исторический очерк [The Kyrgyz: an historical outline]. Collected Works of V. Bartold, Vol. II, part 1 (in Russian). pp. 65–80. Archived fromthe original on 2 January 2016.
^Georg, Stefan (2023). "Connections between Uralic and Other Language Families". In Daniel Abondolo; Riitta-Liisa Valijärvi (eds.).The Uralic Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 176–209.doi:10.4324/9781315625096-4.ISBN978-1-315-62509-6.
^Damgaard et al. 2018, pp. 4–5. "These results suggest that Turkic cultural customs were imposed by an East Asian minority elite onto central steppe nomad populations... The wide distribution of the Turkic languages from Northwest China, Mongolia and Siberia in the east to Turkey and Bulgaria in the west implies large-scale migrations out of the homeland in Mongolia.
^Lee & Kuang 2017, p. 197. "Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations. The Turkicisation of central and western Eurasia was not the product of migrations involving a homogeneous entity, but that of language diffusion."
^Hostetler, Laura (2014). "Central Asians in the Eighteenth-CenturyQing Imperial Illustrations of Tributary Peoples". In Green, Nile (ed.).Writing Travel in Central Asian History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 111.
^Levi, Scott C.; Sela, Ron, eds. (2009).Islamic Central Asia: An Anthology of Historical Sources. Bloomington, IN. p. 62.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^(黠戛斯已破回鹘，得太和公主；又自以李陵后，与唐同宗，故遣使者达干奉主来归。)Xin Tang Shu, vol.217, part 2.
^Prior, Daniel (September 2006). "Heroes, Chieftains, and the Roots of Kirghiz Nationalism".Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism.6 (2): 74.
^Dai, Shan-Shan; Sulaiman, Xierzhatijiang; Isakova, Jainagul; Xu, Wei-Fang; Abdulloevich, Najmudinov Tojiddin; Afanasevna, Manilova Elena; Ibrohimovich, Khudoidodov Behruz; Chen, Xi; Yang, Wei-Kang; Wang, Ming-Shan; Shen, Quan-Kuan; Yang, Xing-Yan; Yao, Yong-Gang; Aldashev, Almaz A; Saidov, Abdusattor; Chen, Wei; Cheng, Lu-Feng; Peng, Min-Sheng; Zhang, Ya-Ping (1 September 2022)."The Genetic Echo of the Tarim Mummies in Modern Central Asians".Molecular Biology and Evolution.39 (9) msac179.doi:10.1093/molbev/msac179.PMC9469894.PMID36006373. "The Kyrgyz individuals from China/Kyrgyzstan distribute in the center of PCA and cluster largely according to their geographic locations. The Kyrgyz of China cluster closer with Europeans and South Asians indicating that they have a higher proportion of west Eurasian component than the Kyrgyz of Kyrgyzstan."
^Halili, Bubibatima; Yang, Xiaomin; Wang, Rui; Zhu, Kongyang; Hai, Xiangjun; Wang, Chuan-Chao (August 2023). "Inferring the population history of Kyrgyz in Xinjiang, Northwest China from genome-wide array genotyping".American Journal of Biological Anthropology.181 (4):611–625.doi:10.1002/ajpa.24794.ISSN2692-7691.PMID37310136.Both Kyrgyz_SXJ and Kyrgyz_o1 could be modeled as the admixture between ANA/Baikal_EBA and post-EBA WSHs (Sintashta/Alan), with higher proportions of ANA ancestry ranging from 63.3% in Kyrgyz_o1 to 83.3% in Kyrgyz_SXJ, while Kyrgyz_o2 required the third ancestry from Central Asian (represented by Turkmenistan_Gonur_BA_2 and Turkmenistan_Gonur_BA_1, 9.1%–27.8%) with the proportion of ANA decreasing to 42.7%–55.6%
^"Kyrgyz Republic".International Religious Freedom Report 2010. U.S. Department of State. Archived fromthe original on 23 November 2010.
^Mansoor, Alexandre Y. Religion and Identity in Central Asia: Turkic Shia Communities in the Shadow of Empires. pp. 89–92. Central Asian Studies Press, 2017.
^Khalid, Adeeb. Islam after Communism: Religion and Politics in Central Asia. pp. 134–135. University of California Press, 2007.
^Ritter, William S. The Turkic Peoples of Central Asia: Their Historical and Religious Diversity. pp. 203–207. Routledge, 2015.
^Khalid, Adeeb. Islam after Communism: Religion and Politics in Central Asia. pp. 135–136. University of California Press, 2007.
^Mansoor, Alexandre Y. Religion and Identity in Central Asia: Turkic Shia Communities in the Shadow of Empires. pp. 91. Central Asian Studies Press, 2017.
^Mansoor, Alexandre Y. Religion and Identity in Central Asia: Turkic Shia Communities in the Shadow of Empires. pp. 93. Central Asian Studies Press, 2017.
^Khalid, Adeeb. Islam after Communism: Religion and Politics in Central Asia. pp. 136. University of California Press, 2007.
West, Barbara A. (2009).Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. New York: Facts On File.ISBN978-0-8160-7109-8.
Further reading
Kyzlasov, L.R. "Mutual relationship of termsKhakas andKyrgyz in written sources of 6–12th centuries". Peoples of Asia and Africa, 1968.(in Russian)
Zuev, Yu.A. "Kirgiz – Buruts".Soviet Ethnography, 1970, No 4,(in Russian).
Shahrani, M. Nazif. (1979)The Kirghiz and Wakhi of Afghanistan: Adaptation to Closed Frontiers and War. University of Washington Press. 1st paperback edition with new preface and epilogue (2002).ISBN0-295-98262-4.
Kyrgyz Republic, by Rowan Stewart and Susie Steldon, by Odyssey publications.
1 Central Asian (i.e.Turkmeni,Afghani andIranian)Turkmens, distinct from Levantine (i.e.Iraqi andSyrian) Turkmen/Turkoman minorities, who mostly adhere to an Ottoman-Turkish heritage and identity.2 In traditional areas of Turkish settlement (i.e. formerOttoman territories).
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