A map of India in the 2nd century AD showing the extent of the Kushan Empire (in brown) during the reign ofKanishka. Most historians consider the empire to have variously extended as far east as the middle Ganges plain,[1] to Varanasi in the easternGangetic plain,[2][3] or probably evenPataliputra.[4][5]
The Kushans were most probably one of five branches of theYuezhi confederation,[23][24] anIndo-European nomadic people of possibleTocharian origin,[25][26][27][28][29] who migrated from northwestern China (Xinjiang and Gansu) and settled in ancient Bactria.[24] The founder of the dynasty,Kujula Kadphises, followed Iranian and Greek cultural ideas and iconography after theGreco-Bactrian tradition and was a follower of theShaivite sect ofHinduism.[30] Many of the later Kushan kings after Kujula, were also patrons of Hinduism, including (but not limited to)Vima Kadphises andVasudeva II. The Kushans in general were also great patrons ofBuddhism, and, starting with Emperor Kanishka, they employed elements ofZoroastrianism in their pantheon.[31] They played an important role in the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and China, ushering in a period of relative peace for 200 years, sometimes described as "Pax Kushana".[32]
The Kushans possibly used theGreek language initially for administrative purposes but soon began to use the Eastern IranianBactrian language. Kanishka sent his armies north of theKarakoram mountains. A direct road fromGandhara to China remained under Kushan control for more than a century, encouraged travel across the Karakoram, and facilitated thespread of Mahayana Buddhism to China. The Kushan dynasty had diplomatic contacts with theRoman Empire,Sasanian Persia, theAksumite Empire, and theHan dynasty of China. The Kushan Empire was at the center of trade relations between the Roman Empire and China: according toAlain Daniélou, "for a time, the Kushana Empire was the centerpoint of the major civilizations".[33] While much philosophy, art, and science was created within its borders, the only textual record of the empire's history today comes from inscriptions and accounts in other languages, particularly Chinese.[34]
The Kushan Empire fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms in the 3rd century AD, which fell to the Sasanians invading from the west and establishing theKushano-Sasanian Kingdom in the areas ofSogdiana, Bactria, and Gandhara. In the 4th century, theGuptas, another Indian dynasty, also pressed from the east. The last of the Kushan and Kushano-Sasanian kingdoms were eventually overwhelmed by invaders from the north, known as theKidarites, and later theHephthalites.[12]
Chinese sources describe theGuìshuāng (貴霜,Old Chinese:*kuj-s [s]raŋ),i.e. the Kushans, as one of the five aristocratic tribes of theYuezhi.[37] Many scholars believe that the Yuezhi were a people ofIndo-European origin.[25][38] A specificallyTocharian origin of the Yuezhi is often suggested.[25][26][27][28][29][39] AnIranian, specificallySaka origin, has also been suggested by some scholars.[40]
The Yuezhi were described in theRecords of the Great Historian and theBook of Han as living in the grasslands of eastern Xinjiang and northwestern part ofGansu, in the northwest of modern-day China, until their King was beheaded by theXiongnu (匈奴) who were also at war with China, which eventually forced them to migrate west in 176–160 BC.[41] The five tribes constituting the Yuezhi are known in Chinese history asXiūmì (休密),Guìshuāng (貴霜),Shuāngmǐ (雙靡),Xìdùn (肸頓), andDūmì (都密).
Theethnonym "KOϷϷANO" (Koshshano, "Kushan") inGreek alphabet (with the addition of the letterϷ, "Sh") on a coin of the first known Kushan rulerHeraios (1st century AD).
The Yuezhi reached the Hellenic kingdom ofGreco-Bactria (in northern Afghanistan and Uzbekistan) around 135 BC. The displaced Greek dynasties resettled to the southeast in areas of theHindu Kush (in present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan) and theIndus basin (in present-day Pakistan and India), occupying the western part of theIndo-Greek Kingdom.[citation needed]
InSouth Asia, Kushan emperors regularly used the dynastic nameΚΟϷΑΝΟ ("Koshano") on their coinage.[16] Several inscriptions inSanskrit in theBrahmi script, such as theMathura inscription of the statue ofVima Kadphises, refer to the Kushan Emperor as,Ku-ṣā-ṇa ("Kushana").[16][42] Some later Indian literary sources referred to the Kushans asTurushka, a name which in later Sanskrit sources[note 4] was confused withTurk, "probably due to the fact thatTukharistan passed into the hands of thewestern Turks in the seventh century".[43][44] According toJohn M. Rosenfield,Turushka,Tukhāra orTukhāra are variations of the wordTokhari in Indian writings.[45] Yet, according to Wink, "nowadays no historian considers them to be Turkish-Mongoloid or "Hun", although there is no doubt about their Central-Asian origin."[43]
Earlier theories regarding the link between the Tocharians and the Yuezhi were often based on linguistic evidence, oral traditions or historical sources but usually without exploring the archaeological evidence for these two ancient groups. However, genetic studies of the ancient remains ofXinjiang indicates that the Tocharians were not the Yuezhi. The Tocharians' paternal lineages were from East Eurasians, which differed from the Yuezhi. This suggests that the Tocharians and the Yuezhi people did not share the same origin. TheYuezhis were a uniqueCentral Asian group with West Eurasian origin, dissimilar to the origins of theTocharians. With the subsequent expansion of the Kushan Empire, theYuezhis were integrated and assimilated, leading to their disappearance as a separately identifiable entity in historical sources. Probably due to the complicated history ofBactria, may be the reasons to the misunderstandings of the relationship between theTocharians and theYuezhis. More evidence is in need to resolve theTocharian-Yuezhi relationship.[46]
Some traces remain of the presence of the Kushans in the area of Bactria andSogdiana in the 2nd-1st century BC, where they had displaced theSakas, who moved further south.[48] Archaeological structures are known inTakht-i Sangin,Surkh Kotal (a monumental temple), and in the palace ofKhalchayan. On the ruins of ancient Hellenistic cities such asAi-Khanoum, the Kushans are known to have built fortresses. Various sculptures and friezes from this period are known, representing horse-riding archers,[49] and, significantly, men such as theKushan prince of Khalchayan withartificially deformed skulls, a practice well attested in nomadic Central Asia.[50][51] Some of the Khalchayan sculptural scenes are also thought to depict the Kushans fighting against theSakas.[52] In these portrayals, the Yuezhis are shown with a majestic demeanour, whereas the Sakas are typically represented with side-whiskers, and more or less grotesque facial expressions.[52]
The Chinese first referred to these people as the Yuezhi and said they established the Kushan Empire, although the relationship between the Yuezhi and the Kushans is still unclear.Ban Gu'sBook of Han tells us the Kushans (Kuei-shuang) divided up Bactria in 128 BC.Fan Ye'sBook of Later Han "relates how the chief of the Kushans, Ch'iu-shiu-ch'ueh (the Kujula Kadphises of coins), founded by means of the submission of the other Yueh-chih clans the Kushan Empire."[48]
The earliest documented ruler, and the first one to proclaim himself as a Kushan ruler, wasHeraios. He calls himself a "tyrant" inGreek on his coins, and also exhibits skull deformation. He may have been an ally of the Greeks, and he shared the same style of coinage. Heraios may have been the father of the first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises.[citation needed]
The ChineseBook of Later Han chronicles then gives an account of the formation of the Kushan empire based on a report made by the Chinese generalBan Yong to the Chinese Emperorc. AD 125:
More than a hundred years later [than the conquest of Bactria by the Yuezhi], the prince [xihou] of Guishuang (Badakhshan) established himself as king, and his dynasty was called that of the Guishuang (Kushan) King. He invaded Anxi (Indo-Parthia), and took the Gaofu (Kabul) region. He also defeated the whole of the kingdoms of Puda (Paktiya) and Jibin (Kapisha andGandhara). Qiujiuque (Kujula Kadphises) was more than eighty years old when he died. His son, Yangaozhen [probablyVema Tahk (tu) or, possibly, his brotherSadaṣkaṇa ], became king in his place. He defeatedTianzhu [North-western India] and installed Generals to supervise and lead it. The Yuezhi then became extremely rich. All the kingdoms call [their king] the Guishuang [Kushan] king, but the Han call them by their original name, Da Yuezhi.
In the 1st century BC, theGuishuang (Ch: 貴霜) gained prominence over the other Yuezhi tribes, and welded them into a tight confederation under commander Kujula Kadphises.[55] The nameGuishuang was adopted in the West and modified intoKushan to designate the confederation, although the Chinese continued to call themYuezhi.
Greek alphabet (narrow columns) with Kushan script (wide columns)
The Kushans adopted elements of theHellenistic culture of Bactria. They adopted theGreek alphabet to suit their own language (with the additional development of the letter Þ "sh", as in "Kushan") and soon began minting coinage on the Greek model. On their coins they used Greek language legends combined with Pali legends (in theKharoshthi script), until the first few years of the reign of Kanishka. After the middle of Kanishka's reign, they used Kushan language legends (in an adapted Greek script), combined with legends in Greek (Greek script) and legends in Prakrit (Kharoshthi script).
Interestingly there is evidence for the collaboration between Greek populations and the Kushans in the 2nd century AD. Apparently the main architect of the Kushan temple atSurkh Kotal was a Greek named Palamedes. A Greek inscription has been found which could be read as: ΔΙΑ ΠΑΛΑΜΕΔΟΥΣ, i.e.dia Palamedous, meaning "through or by Palamedes". This proves that Hellenistic populations still remained in Bactria up into the Kushan era, and also explains how the Greek alphabet could have been applied to the Bactrian language.[57]
Early gold coin of Kanishka I with Greek language legend and Hellenistic divinityHelios. (c. AD 120). Obverse: Kanishka standing, clad in heavy Kushan coat and long boots, flames emanating from shoulders, holding a standard in his left hand, and making a sacrifice over an altar. Greek legend:
ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΚΑΝΗϷΚΟΥ Basileus Basileon Kanishkoy "[Coin] of Kanishka, king of kings".
Reverse: Standing Helios in Hellenistic style, forming a benediction gesture with the right hand. Legend in Greek script:
ΗΛΙΟCHelios
Kanishka monogram (tamgha) to the left.
The Kushans "adopted many local beliefs and customs, includingZoroastrianism and the two rising religions in the region, the Greek cults andBuddhism".[56] From the time ofVima Takto, many Kushans started adopting aspects ofBuddhist culture, and like the Egyptians, they absorbed the strong remnants of the Greek culture of the Hellenistic Kingdoms, becoming at least partlyHellenised. The great Kushan emperorVima Kadphises, father ofKanishka, embracedShaivism, a sect ofHinduism, as surmised by coins minted during the period.[9] The following Kushan emperors represented a wide variety of faiths includingBuddhism, Zoroastrianism andHindu Shaivism.
The loose unity and comparative peace of such a vast expanse encouraged long-distance trade, brought Chinese silks toRome, and created strings of flourishing urban centers.[55]
Rosenfield notes that archaeological evidence of a Kushan rule of long duration is present in an area stretching from Surkh Kotal,Kapisa, the summer capital of the Kushans,Purushapura (modern Peshawar), the capital under Kanishka I,Taxila, andMathura, the winter capital of the Kushans.[63] The Kushans introduced for the first time a form of governance which consisted ofKshatrapas (Brahmi:,Kṣatrapa, "Satraps") andMahakshatrapa (Brahmi:,Mahakṣatrapa, "GreatSatraps").[64]
TheRabatak inscription, discovered in 1993, confirms the account of the Hou Hanshu,Weilüe, and inscriptions dated early in the Kanishka era (incept probably AD 127), that large Kushan dominions expanded into the heartland of northern India in the early 2nd century AD.[clarify] Lines 4 to 7 of the inscription describe the cities which were under the rule of Kanishka,[note 6] among which six names are identifiable:Ujjain,Kundina,Saketa,Kausambi,Pataliputra, andChampa (although the text is not clear whether Champa was a possession of Kanishka or just beyond it).[67][note 5][68][69] The Buddhist textŚrīdharmapiṭakanidānasūtra—known via a Chinese translation made in AD 472—refers to the conquest of Pataliputra by Kanishka.[70] A 2nd century stone inscription by a Great Satrap namedRupiamma was discovered inPauni, south of theNarmada river, suggesting that Kushan control extended this far south, although this could alternatively have been controlled by theWestern Satraps.[71]
Eastern reach as far asBengal:Samatata coinage of king Vira Jadamarah, in imitation of theKushan coinage ofKanishka I. The text of the legend is a meaningless imitation.Bengal, circa 2nd-3rd century AD.[72]
In the East, as late as the 3rd century AD, decorated coins of Huvishka were dedicated atBodh Gaya together with other gold offerings under the "Enlightenment Throne" of the Buddha, suggesting direct Kushan influence in the area during that period.[73] Coins of the Kushans are found in abundance as far asBengal, and the ancient Bengali state ofSamatata issued coins copied from the coinage of Kanishka I, although probably only as a result of commercial influence.[74][72][75] Coins in imitation of Kushan coinage have also been found abundantly in the eastern state ofOrissa.[76]
Northward, in the 1st century AD, theKujula Kadphises sent an army to theTarim Basin to support the city-state ofKucha, which had been resisting the Chinese invasion of the region, but they retreated after minor encounters.[77] In the 2nd century AD, the Kushans under Kanishka made various forays into theTarim Basin, where they had various contacts with the Chinese. Kanishka held areas of theTarim Basin apparently corresponding to the ancient regions held by theYüeh-zhi, the possible ancestors of the Kushan. There was Kushan influence on coinage inKashgar,Yarkand, andKhotan.[61] According to Chinese chronicles, the Kushans (referred to asDa Yuezhi in Chinese sources) requested, but were denied, aHan princess, even though they had sent presents to the Chinese court. In retaliation, they marched on Ban Chao in AD 90 with a force of 70,000 but were defeated by the smaller Chinese force. Chinese chronicles relate battles between the Kushans and the Chinese generalBan Chao.[69] The Yuezhi retreated and paid tribute to the Chinese Empire. The regions of the Tarim Basin were all ultimately conquered byBan Chao. Later, during theYuánchū period (AD 114–120), the Kushans sent a military force to install Chenpan, who had been a hostage among them, as king ofKashgar.[78]
Several Kushan fortresses are known, particularly inBactria, which were often rebuilt on top ofHellenistic fortifications, as inKampir Tepe.[79][80] They are often characterised by arrow-shapedloopholes for archers.[79]
Kushan rulers are recorded for a period of about three centuries, from circa 30 CE to circa 375 CE, until the invasions of theKidarites. They ruled around the same time as theWestern Satraps, theSatavahanas, and the firstGupta Empire rulers.[citation needed]
...the prince [elavoor] of Guishuang, named thilac [Kujula Kadphises], attacked and exterminated the four other xihou. He established himself as king, and his dynasty was called that of the Guishuang [Kushan] King. He invaded Anxi [Indo-Parthia] and took the Gaofu [Kabul] region. He also defeated the whole of the kingdoms of Puda [Paktiya] and Jibin [Kapisha and Gandhara]. Qiujiuque [Kujula Kadphises] was more than eighty years old when he died."
These conquests byKujula Kadphises probably took place sometime between AD 45 and 60 and laid the basis for the Kushan Empire which was rapidly expanded by his descendants.[citation needed]
Kujula issued an extensive series of coins and fathered at least two sons,Sadaṣkaṇa (who is known from only two inscriptions, especially the Rabatak inscription, and apparently never ruled), and seemingly Vima Takto.[citation needed]
Kujula Kadphises was the great-grandfather of Kanishka.[citation needed]
Vima Takto (Ancient Chinese: 閻膏珍Yangaozhen) is mentioned in the Rabatak inscription (another son, Sadashkana, is mentioned in an inscription of Senavarman, the King of Odi). He was the predecessor of Vima Kadphises, and Kanishka I. He expanded the Kushan Empire into the northwest of South Asia. The Hou Hanshu says:
"His son, Yangaozhen [probably Vema Tahk (tu) or, possibly, his brother Sadaṣkaṇa], became king in his place. He defeated Tianzhu [North-western India] and installed Generals to supervise and lead it. The Yuezhi then became extremely rich. All the kingdoms call [their king] the Guishuang [Kushan] king, but the Han call them by their original name, Da Yuezhi."
Vima Kadphises (Kushan language: Οοημο Καδφισης) was a Kushan emperor from around AD 95–127, the son of Sadashkana and the grandson of Kujula Kadphises, and the father of Kanishka I, as detailed by the Rabatak inscription.[citation needed]
Vima Kadphises added to the Kushan territory by his conquests in Bactria. He issued an extensive series of coins and inscriptions. He issued gold coins in addition to the existing copper and silver coinage.[citation needed]
The rule ofKanishka the Great, fourth Kushan king, lasted for about 23 years from c. AD 127.[83] Upon his accession, Kanishka ruled a huge territory (virtually all of northern India), south to Ujjain and Kundina and east beyond Pataliputra, according to the Rabatak inscription:
In the year one, it has been proclaimed unto India, unto the whole realm of the governing class, including Koonadeano (Kaundiny,Kundina) and the city of Ozeno (Ozene,Ujjain) and the city of Zageda (Saketa) and the city of Kozambo (Kausambi) and the city of Palabotro (Pataliputra) and as far as the city of Ziri-tambo (Sri-Champa), whatever rulers and other important persons (they might have) he had submitted to (his) will, and he had submitted all India to (his) will.
The Kushans also had a summer capital inKapisa (near modern Bagram), where the "Begram Treasure", comprising works of art from Greece to China, has been found. According to the Rabatak inscription, Kanishka was the son of Vima Kadphises, the grandson of Sadashkana, and the great-grandson of Kujula Kadphises. Kanishka's era is now generally accepted to have begun in 127 on the basis of Harry Falk's ground-breaking research.[20][21] Kanishka's era was used as a calendar reference by the Kushans for about a century, until the decline of the Kushan realm.[citation needed]
Huvishka (Kushan: Οοηϸκι, "Ooishki") was a Kushan emperor from the death of Kanishka (assumed on the best evidence available to be in 150) until the succession ofVasudeva I about thirty years later. His rule was a period of retrenchment and consolidation for the Empire. In particular he devoted time and effort early in his reign to the exertion of greater control over the city of Mathura.[citation needed]
Vasudeva I (Kushan: Βαζοδηο "Bazodeo", Chinese: 波調 "Bodiao") was the last of the "Great Kushans". Named inscriptions dating from year 64 to 98 of Kanishka's era suggest his reign extended from at least AD 191 to 225. He was the last great Kushan emperor, and the end of his rule coincides with the invasion of theSasanians as far as northwestern India, and the establishment of theIndo-Sasanians orKushanshahs in what is nowadays Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwestern India from around AD 240.[citation needed]
Vāsishka was a Kushan emperor who seems to have had a 20-year reign followingKanishka II. His rule is recorded atMathura, inGandhara and as far south as Sanchi (nearVidisa), where several inscriptions in his name have been found, dated to the year 22 (the Sanchi inscription of "Vaksushana" – i.e., Vasishka Kushana) and year 28 (the Sanchi inscription of Vasaska – i.e., Vasishka) of a possible second Kanishka era.[85][86]
Following territorial losses in the west (Bactria lost to theKushano-Sasanians), and in the east (loss ofMathura to theGupta Empire), several "Little Kushans" are known, who ruled locally in the area ofPunjab with their capital atTaxila:Vasudeva II (270 – 300),Mahi (300 – 305),Shaka (305 – 335) andKipunada (335 – 350).[85] They probably were vassals of theGupta Empire, until the invasion of theKidarites destroyed the last remains of Kushan rule.[85]
Kumara/Kartikeya with a Kushan devotee, 2nd century ADKushan prince, said to beHuvishka, making a donation to aBoddhisattva.[87]ShivaLinga worshipped by Kushan devotees, circa 2nd century AD
The Kushan religiouspantheon is extremely varied, as revealed by their coins that were made in gold, silver, and copper. These coins contained more than thirty different gods, belonging mainly to their own Iranian, as well as Greek and Indian worlds as well. Kushan coins had images of Kushan Kings, Buddha, and figures from the Indo-Aryan and Iranian pantheons.[88] Greek deities, with Greek names are represented on early coins. During Kanishka's reign, the language of the coinage changes toBactrian (though it remained in Greek script for all kings). After Huvishka, only two divinities appear on the coins:Ardoxsho andOesho (see details below).[89][90]
Two copper coins of Huvishka bear a "Ganesa" legend, but instead of depicting the typicaltheriomorphic figure ofGanesha, have a figure of an archer holding a full-length bow with string inwards and an arrow. This is typically a depiction ofRudra, but in the case of these two coins is generally assumed to represent Shiva.
Images of Kushan worshippers
Kushan worshipper with Zeus/Serapis/Ohrmazd, Bactria, 3rd century AD.[104]
Kushan worshipper withPharro, Bactria, 3rd century AD.[104]
Kushan worshipper with Shiva/Oesho, Bactria, 3rd century AD.[104]
Shiva-Oesho wall painting with fragment of a worshipper, Bactria, 3rd century AD.[105]
TheAhin Posh stupa was dedicated in the 2nd century AD under the Kushans, and contained coins of Kushan and Roman Emperors.Early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushan devotee,Maitreya, theBuddha,Avalokitesvara, and a Buddhist monk. 2nd–3rd century,Shotorak.[110]
The Kushans inherited theGreco-Buddhist traditions of theIndo-Greek Kingdom they replaced, and their patronage of Buddhist institutions allowed them to grow as a commercial power.[111] Between the mid-1st century and the mid-3rd century, Buddhism, patronised by the Kushans, extended to China and other Asian countries through theSilk Road.[citation needed]
Kanishka is renowned in Buddhist tradition for having convened agreat Buddhist council inKashmir. Along with his predecessors in the region, the Indo-Greek kingMenander I (Milinda) and the Indian emperorsAshoka andHarsha Vardhana, Kanishka is considered by Buddhism as one of its greatest benefactors.[citation needed]
During the 1st century AD, Buddhist books were being produced and carried by monks, and their trader patrons. Also, monasteries were being established along these land routes that went from China and other parts of Asia. With the development of Buddhist books, it caused a new written language called Gandhara. Gandhara consists of eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan. Scholars are said to have found many Buddhist scrolls that contained the Gandhari language.[112]
The reign of Huvishka corresponds to the first known epigraphic evidence of the BuddhaAmitabha, on the bottom part of a 2nd-century statue which has been found in Govindo-Nagar, and now at theMathura Museum. The statue is dated to "the 28th year of the reign of Huvishka", and dedicated to "Amitabha Buddha" by a family of merchants. There is also some evidence that Huvishka himself was a follower ofMahayana Buddhism. ASanskrit manuscript fragment in theSchøyen Collection describes Huvishka as one who has "set forth in the Mahāyāna."[113]
The 12th century historical chronicleRajatarangini mentions in detail the rule of the Kushan kings and their benevolence towards Buddhism:[114][115]
Then there ruled in this very land the founders of cities called after their own appellations the three kings namedHuska,Juska andKaniska (...) These kings albeit belonging to the Turkish race found refuge in acts of piety; they constructed in Suskaletra and other placesmonasteries,Caityas and similar edificies. During the glorious period of their regime the kingdom ofKashmir was for the most part an appanage of the Buddhists who had acquired lustre by renunciation. At this time since the Nirvana of the blessedSakya Simha in this terrestrial world one hundred fifty years, it is said, had elapsed. And a Bodhisattva was in this country the sole supreme ruler of the land; he was the illustriousNagarjuna who dwelt in Sadarhadvana.
The art and culture of Gandhara, at the crossroads of the Kushan hegemony, developed the traditions ofGreco-Buddhist art and are the best known expressions of Kushan influences to Westerners. Several direct depictions of Kushans are known from Gandhara, where they are represented with a tunic, belt and trousers and play the role of devotees to the Buddha, as well as theBodhisattva and future Buddha Maitreya.[117]
According to Benjamin Rowland, the first expression of Kushan art appears atKhalchayan at the end of the 2nd century BC.[117] It is derived fromHellenistic art, and possibly from the art of the cities ofAi-Khanoum andNysa, and clearly has similarities with the laterArt of Gandhara, and may even have been at the origin of its development.[117] Rowland particularly draws attention to the similarity of the ethnic types represented at Khalchayan and in the art of Gandhara, and also in the style of portraiture itself.[117] For example, Rowland find a great proximity betweenthe famous head of a Yuezhi prince from Khalchayan, and the head of GandharanBodhisattvas, giving the example of the Gandharan head of a Bodhisattva in thePhiladelphia Museum of Art.[117] The similarity of the Gandhara Bodhisattva with the portrait of the Kushan rulerHeraios is also striking.[117] According to Rowland the Bactrian art of Khalchayan thus survived for several centuries through its influence in the art of Gandhara, thanks to the patronage of theKushans.[117]
During the Kushan Empire, many images ofGandhara share a strong resemblance to the features of Greek, Syrian, Persian and Indian figures. These Western-looking stylistic signatures often include heavy drapery and curly hair,[118] representing a composite (the Greeks, for example, often possessed curly hair).[citation needed]
As the Kushans took control of the area ofMathura as well, theArt of Mathura developed considerably, and free-standing statues of theBuddha came to be mass-produced around this time, possibly encouraged by doctrinal changes in Buddhism allowing to depart from theaniconism that had prevailed in the Buddhist sculptures at Mathura,Bharhut orSanchi from the end of the 2nd century BC.[119] The artistic cultural influence of kushans declined slowly due to Hellenistic Greek and Indian influences.[120]
Kushan gold ingots, from theDalverzin Tepe treasure, 1st century CE
The Kushans used gold ingots as part of their monetary system, as shown by the gold treasure discovered in 1972 inDalverzin Tepe.[127] The main objects from the treasure were circular and parallelepipedic ingots, followed by various decorative objects and jewellery items.[127] The circular ingots used to be progressively cut up as needed, depending on the amount required for a transaction.[127] On the contrary, the parallelepipedic ingots were used to stock wealth in a not-divisible form; these ingots bear inscriptions inKharoshthi mentioning their weight and the godMitra (protector of contractual relations)[127] These ingots are all attributed to the monetary system of the Kushan Empire.[127]
The coinage of the Kushans was abundant and an important tool of propaganda in promoting each Kushan ruler.[128] One of the names for Kushan coins wasDinara, which ultimately came from the Roman nameDenariusaureus.[128][129][130] The coinage of the Kushans was copied as far as theKushano-Sasanians in the west, and the kingdom ofSamatata inBengal to the east. The coinage of theGupta Empire was also initially derived from the coinage of the Kushan Empire, adopting its weight standard, techniques and designs, following the conquests ofSamudragupta in the northwest.[131][132][133] The imagery on Gupta coins then became more Indian in both style and subject matter compared to earlier dynasties, where Greco-Roman and Persian styles were mostly followed.[132][134]
It has long been suggested that the gold contained in Kushan coins was ultimately of Roman origin, and that Roman coins were imported as a consequence of trade and melted in India to mint Kushan coins. However, a recentarchaeometallurgical study of trace elements through proton activation analysis has shown that Kushan gold contains high concentrations ofplatinum andpalladium, which rules out the hypothesis of a Roman provenance. To this day, the origin of Kushan gold remains unknown.[135]
Indian imitation of a coin of Septimius Severus. AD 193–211
Several Roman sources describe the visit of ambassadors from the Kings of Bactria and India during the 2nd century, probably referring to the Kushans.[136]
Greco-Romangladiator on a glass vessel, Kapisa, 2nd century
Reges Bactrianorum legatos ad eum, amicitiae petendae causa, supplices miserunt"The kings of the Bactrians sent supplicant ambassadors to him, to seek his friendship."[136]
Some Kushan coins have an effigy of "Roma", suggesting a strong level of awareness and some level of diplomatic relations.[136]
The summer capital of the Kushan Empire in Kapisa has yielded a considerable amount of goods imported from the Roman Empire—in particular, various types of glassware. The Chinese described the presence of Roman goods in the Kushan realm:
"Precious things fromDa Qin [the Roman Empire] can be found there [in Tianzhu or Northwestern India], as well as finecotton cloths, fine wool carpets, perfumes of all sorts,sugar candy,pepper,ginger, and black salt."
During the 1st and 2nd century AD, the Kushan Empire expanded militarily to the north, putting them at the center of the profitable Central Asian commerce. They are related to have collaborated militarily with the Chinese against nomadic incursion, particularly when they allied with theHan dynasty generalBan Chao against the Sogdians in 84, when the latter were trying to support a revolt by the king of Kashgar.[139] Around 85, they also assisted the Chinese general in an attack onTurpan, east of the Tarim Basin.
In recognition for their support to the Chinese, the Kushans requested a Han princess, but were denied,[139][142] even after they had sent presents to the Chinese court. In retaliation, they marched on Ban Chao in 86 with a force of 70,000, but were defeated by a smaller Chinese force.[139][142] The Yuezhi retreated and paid tribute to the Chinese Empire during the reign of emperorHe of Han (89–106).
The Kushans are again recorded to have sent presents to the Chinese court in 158–159 during the reign ofEmperor Huan of Han.
Following these interactions, cultural exchanges further increased, and Kushan Buddhist missionaries, such asLokaksema, became active in the Chinese capital cities ofLuoyang and sometimesNanjing, where they particularly distinguished themselves by their translation work. They were the first recorded promoters of Hinayana and Mahayana scriptures in China, greatly contributing to theSilk Road transmission of Buddhism.
The Kushano-Sasanians imitated the Kushans in some of their Bactrian coinage. Coin of Sasanian rulerPeroz I Kushanshah, withBactrian legend around "Peroz the Great Kushan King"
After the death ofVasudeva I in 225, the Kushan empire split into western and eastern halves. The Western Kushans (in Afghanistan) were soon subjugated by the PersianSasanian Empire and lostSogdiana,Bactria, andGandhara to them. The Sassanian kingShapur I (240–270) claims in hisNaqsh-e Rostam inscription possession of the territory of the Kushans (Kūšān šahr) as far asPurushapura (modern Peshawar), suggesting he controlledBactria and areas as far as theHindu-Kush or even south of it:[143]
I, the Mazda-worshipping lord, Shapur, king of kings of Iran and An-Iran... (I) am the Master of the Domain of Iran (Ērānšahr) and possess the territory of Persis, Parthian... Hindestan, the Domain of the Kushan up to the limits of Paškabur and up to Kash, Sughd, and Chachestan.
The Sasanians deposed the Western dynasty and replaced them with Persian vassals known as theKushanshas (inBactrian on their coinage: KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟKoshano Shao)[144] also calledIndo-Sasanians orKushano-Sasanians. The Kushano-Sasanians ultimately became very powerful underHormizd I Kushanshah (277–286) and rebelled against the Sasanian Empire, while continuing many aspects of the Kushan culture, visible in particular in their titulature and their coinage.[145]
Coin minted in thePunjab area with the name "Samudra" (Sa-mu-dra), thought to be the Gupta rulerSamudragupta. These coins imitate those of the last Kushan rulerKipunada, and precede the coinage of the firstKidarite Huns in northwestern India. Circa 350-375.[147][148]
The Eastern Kushan kingdom, also known as the "Little Kushans", was based in the Punjab. Around 270 their territories on the Gangetic plain became independent under local dynasties such as theYaudheyas. Then in the mid-4th century they were subjugated by the Gupta Empire underSamudragupta.[149] In his inscription on theAllahabad pillar Samudragupta proclaims that theDēvaputra-Shāhi-Shāhānushāhi (referring to the last Kushan rulers, being a deformation of the Kushan regnal titlesDevaputra,Shao andShaonanoshao: "Son of God, King, King of Kings") are now under his dominion, and that they were forced to "self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces".[150][149][151] This suggests that by the time of the Allahabad inscription the Kushans still ruled inPunjab, but under the suzerainty of the Gupta Emperor.[149]
Numismatics indicate that the coinage of the Eastern Kushans was much weakened: silver coinage was abandoned altogether, and gold coinage was debased. This suggests that the Eastern Kushans had lost their central trading role on the trade routes that supplied luxury goods andgold.[149] Still, theBuddhist art of Gandhara continued to flourish, and cities such asSirsukh nearTaxila were established.[149]
In the east around 350, Shapur II regained the upper hand against theKushano-Sasanian Kingdom and took control of large territories in areas now known asAfghanistan andPakistan, possibly as a consequence of the destruction of the Kushano-Sasanians by theChionites.[152] The Kushano-Sasanian still ruled in the north. Important finds of Sasanian coinage beyond theIndus River in the city ofTaxila only start with the reigns of Shapur II (r.309-379) andShapur III (r.383-388), suggesting that the expansion of Sasanian control beyond the Indus was the result of the wars of Shapur II "with theChionites and Kushans" in 350-358 as described byAmmianus Marcellinus.[153] They probably maintained control until the rise of theKidarites under their rulerKidara.[153]
In 360 aKidarite Hun namedKidara overthrew theKushano-Sasanians and remnants of the old Kushan dynasty, and established theKidarite Kingdom. The Kushan style of Kidarite coins indicates they claimed Kushan heritage. The Kidarite seem to have been rather prosperous, although on a smaller scale than their Kushan predecessors. East of thePunjab, the former eastern territories of the Kushans were controlled by the mightyGupta Empire.[citation needed]
The remnants of Kushan culture under the Kidarites in the northwest were ultimately wiped out in the end of the 5th century by the invasions of theAlchon Huns (sometimes considered as a branch of theHephthalites), and later theNezak Huns.[citation needed]
^Richard Salomon (July–September 1996). "An Inscribed Silver Buddhist Reliquary of the Time of King Kharaosta and Prince Indravarman".Journal of the American Oriental Society.116 (3): 418–452 [442].JSTOR605147.
^Richard Salomon (1995) [Published online: 9 Aug 2010]. "A Kharosthī Reliquary Inscription of the Time of the Apraca Prince Visnuvarma".South Asian Studies.11 (1):27–32.doi:10.1080/02666030.1995.9628492.
^abDi Castro, Angelo Andrea; Hope, Colin A. (2005). "The Barbarisation of Bactria".Cultural Interaction in Afghanistan c 300 BCE to 300 CE. Melbourne: Monash University Press. pp. 1–18, map visible online page 2 ofHestia, a Tabula Iliaca and Poseidon's trident.ISBN978-1876924393.
^Runion, Meredith L. (2007).The history of Afghanistan. Westport: Greenwood Press. p. 46.ISBN978-0-313-33798-7.The Yuezhi people conquered Bactria in the second century BCE. and divided the country into five chiefdoms, one of which would become the Kushan Empire. Recognizing the importance of unification, these five tribes combined under the one dominate Kushan tribe, and the primary rulers descended from the Yuezhi.
^abLiu, Xinru (2001). "The Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Interactions in Eurasia". In Adas, Michael (ed.).Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 156.ISBN978-1-56639-832-9.
^abcNarain 1990, pp. 152–155 "[W]e must identify them [Tocharians] with the Yueh-chih of the Chinese sources... [C]onsensus of scholarly opinion identifies the Yueh-chih with the Tokharians... [T]he Indo-European ethnic origin of the Yuehchih = Tokharians is generally accepted... Yueh-chih = Tokharian people... Yueh-chih = Tokharians..."
^abBeckwith 2009, p. 380 "The identity of the Tokharoi and Yüeh-chih people is quite certain, and has been clear for at least half a century, though this has not become widely known outside the tiny number of philologists who work on early Central Eurasian and early Chinese history and linguistics."
^abMallory 1997, pp. 591–593 "[T]he Tocharians have frequently been identified in Chinese historical sources as a people known as the Yuezhi..."
^abLoewe & Shaughnessy 1999, pp. 87–88 "Pulleyblank has identified the Yuezhi... Wusun... the Dayuan... the Kangju... and the people of Yanqi... all names occurring in the Chinese historical sources for the Han dynasty, as Tocharian speakers."
^Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Masson, V. M.; Harmatta, J.; Puri, Baij Nath; Etemadi, G. F.; Litvinskiĭ, B. A. (1992–2005).History of civilizations of Central Asia. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 310.ISBN92-3-102719-0.OCLC28186754.Contrary to earlier assumptions, which regarded Kujula Kadphises as Buddhist on the basis of this epithet [dharmasthita- "steadfast in the Law"], it is now clear from the wording of a Mathura inscription, in which Huvishka bears the same epithet satyadharmasthita that the kingdom was conferred upon him by Sarva and Scamdavira (Candavira), that is, he was a devotee of Siva. The Mathura inscription in question is documented inLüders 1961, p.138ff
^Grenet, Frantz (2015). "Zoroastrianism among the Kushans". In Falk, Harry (ed.).Kushan histories. Literary sources and selected papers from a symposium at Berlin, December 5 to 7, 2013. Bremen: Hempen Verlag.
^Loewe, Michael A.N. (1979). "Introduction". In Hulsewé, Anthony François Paulus (ed.).China in Central Asia: The Early Stage: 125 BC – AD 23; an Annotated Translation of Chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. Brill. pp. 1–70.ISBN978-90-04-05884-2. pp. 23–24.
^Banerjee, Gauranga Nath (1920).Hellenism in ancient India. Calcutta: Published by the Author; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 92.
^RajataranginiPandit, Ranjit Sitaram (1935).River Of Kings (rajatarangini). pp. I168–I173.Then there ruled in this very land the founders of cities called after their own appellations the three kings namedHuska,Juska andKaniska (...) These kings, albeit belonging to the Turkish race, found refuge in acts of piety; they constructed in Suskaletra and other placesmonasteries,Caityas and similar edificies.
^abAbdullaev, Kazim (2007)."Nomad Migration in Central Asia (in After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam)".Proceedings of the British Academy.133: 89.The knights in chain-mail armour have analogies in the Khalchayan reliefs depicting a battle of the Yuezhi against a Saka tribe (probably the Sakaraules). Apart from the chain-mail armour worn by the heavy cavalry of the enemies of the Yuezhi, the other characteristic sign of these warriors is long side-whiskers (...) We think it is possible to identify all these grotesque personages with long side-whiskers as enemies of the Yuezhi and relate them to the Sakaraules (...) Indeed these expressive figures with side-whiskers differ greatly from the tranquil and majestic faces and poses of the Yuezhi depictions.
^abStarr, S. Frederick (2013).Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 53.
^Suchandra Ghosh. (2012). Revisiting Kushana Dynastic Sanctuaries.Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 72nd Session, Patiala, Delhi. 212-219.
^Goyal 2005, p. 93. "The Rabatak inscription claims that in the year 1 Kanishka I's authority was proclaimed in India, in all the satrapies and in different cities like Koonadeano (Kundina), Ozeno (Ujjain), Kozambo (Kausambi), Zagedo (Saketa), Palabotro (Pataliputra), and Ziri-Tambo (Janjgir-Champa). These cities lay to the east and south of Mathura, up to which locality Wima had already carried his victorious arm. Therefore they must have been captured or subdued by Kanishka I himself."
^Mukherjee, B.N. (1995). "The Great Kushana Testament".Indian Museum Bulletin. Calcutta.
^Rosenfield 1993, p. 41. "Malwa and Maharashtra, for which it is speculated that the Kushans had an alliance with theWestern Kshatrapas".
^Goyal 2005, p. 93. "The Rabatak inscription claims that in the year 1 Kanishka I's authority was proclaimed in India, in all the satrapies and in different cities like Koonadeano (Kundina), Ozeno (Ujjain), Kozambo (Kausambi), Zagedo (Saketa), Palabotro (Pataliputra) and Ziri-Tambo (Janjgir-Champa). These cities lay to the east and south of Mathura, up to which locality Wima had already carried his victorious arm. Therefore they must have been captured or subdued by Kanishka I himself."
^Numismatic Digest. Numismatic Society of Bombay. 2012. p. 29.As far as gold coins in Bengal are concerned it was Samatata or South-eastern Bengal which issued gold coins ... This trend of imitating Kushan gold continued and had major impact on the currency pattern of this south-eastern zone.
^Ray, N. R. (1982).Sources of the History of India: Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, Manipur, and Tripura. Institute of Historical Studies. p. 194.A large number of Kushan and Puri Kushan coins have been discovered from different parts of Orissa. Scholars have designated the Puri Kushan coins as the Oriya Kushan coins. Though the coins are the imitations of Kushan coins they have been abundantly found from different parts of Orissa.
^Rtveladze, E (2019).Alexandria on the Oxus - Kampir Tepe: A fortress city on the Oxus shore. Tashkent.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Marshak, Boris; Grenet, Frantz (2006). "Une peinture kouchane sur toile".Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.150 (2): 957.doi:10.3406/crai.2006.87101.
^abcHarmatta 1999, p. 326. "Also omitted is the ancient Iranian war god Orlagno, whose place and function are occupied by a group of Indian war gods, Skando (Old Indian Skanda), Komaro (Old Indian Kumara), Maaseno (Old Indian Mahāsena), Bizago (Old Indian Viśākha), and even Ommo (Old Indian Umā), the consort of Siva. Their use as reverse types of Huvishka I is clear evidence for the new trends in religious policy of the Kushan king, which was possibly influenced by enlisting Indian warriors into the Kushan army during the campaign against Pataliputra."
^Fleet, J.F. (1908). "The Introduction of the Greek Uncial and Cursive Characters into India".The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.1908: 179, note 1.JSTOR25210545.The reading of the name of the deity on this coin is very much uncertain and disputed (Riom, Riddhi, Rishthi, Rise....)
^Shrava, Satya (1985).The Kushāṇa Numismatics. Pranava Prakashan. p. 29.The name Riom as read by Gardner, was read by Cunningham as Ride, who equated it with Riddhi, the Indian goddess of fortune. F.W. Thomas has read the name as Rhea
^Perkins, J. (2007). Three-headed Śiva on the Reverse of Vima Kadphises's Copper Coinage. South Asian Studies, 23(1), 31–37
^abcdefghRowland, Benjamin (1971). "Graeco-Bactrian Art and Gandhāra: Khalchayan and the Gandhāra Bodhisattvas".Archives of Asian Art.25:29–35.ISSN0066-6637.JSTOR20111029.
^Vanaja, R. (1983).Indian Coinage. National Museum.Known by the termDinars in early Gupta inscriptions, their gold coinage was based on the weight standard of the Kushans i.e. 8 gms/120 grains. It was replaced in the time ofSkandagupta by a standard of 80 ratis or 144 grains.
^abcde Crespigny, Rafe. (2007).A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. page 5-6.ISBN90-04-15605-4.
^ Joe Cribb, 1974, "Chinese lead ingots with barbarous Greek inscriptions in Coin Hoards" pp.76–8[1]
^Lines 23-24 of theAllahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta: "Self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces through the Garuḍa badge, by the Dēvaputra-Shāhi-Shāhānushāhi and the Śaka lords and by (rulers) occupying all Island countries, such as Siṁhala and others."
Bopearachchi, Osmund (2003).De l'Indus à l'Oxus, Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale (in French). Lattes: Association imago-musée de Lattes.ISBN2-9516679-2-2.
Bopearachchi, Osmund (2007). "Some Observations on the Chronology of the Early Kushans". In Gyselen, Rika (ed.).Des Indo-Grecs aux Sassanides: données pour l'histoire et la géographie historique. Vol. XVII. Group pour l'Etude de la Civilisation du Moyen-Orient.
Chavannes, Édouard (1906).Trois Généraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Orientaux. Pan Tch'ao (32–102 p.C.); – son fils Pan Yong; – Leang K'in (112 p.C.). Chapitre LXXVII duHeou Han chou. T'oung pao 7.
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Dorn'eich, Chris M. (2008).Chinese sources on the History of the Niusi-Wusi-Asi (oi)-Rishi (ka)-Arsi-Arshi-Ruzhi and their Kueishuang-Kushan Dynasty. Shiji 110/Hanshu 94A: The Xiongnu: Synopsis of Chinese original Text and several Western Translations with Extant Annotations. Berlin. To read or download go to:[2]
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![A map of India in the 2nd century AD showing the extent of the Kushan Empire (in brown) during the reign of Kanishka. Most historians consider the empire to have variously extended as far east as the middle Ganges plain,[1] to Varanasi in the eastern Gangetic plain,[2][3] or probably even Pataliputra.[4][5]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMap_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png)
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![The fortress of Shahr-e Zuhak.[81]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aFran%25C3%25A7oise_Foliot_-_Afghanistan_152.jpg)
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![Rishti or Riom[106][107]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCoinOfHuvishkaWithRishtiAsRoma.JPG)
![Coin of Vima Kadphises. Deity Oesho on the reverse, thought to be Shiva,[100][101][108] or the Zoroastrian Vayu.[109]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWima_Kadphises.jpg)
![Kanishka I: Kosambi Bodhisattva, inscribed "Year 2 of Kanishka" (AD 129).[121]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aStanding_Bodhisattva_Dedicated_by_Buddhamitra_Year_2_of_Kanishka.jpg)
![Kanishka I: Bala Bodhisattva, Sarnath, inscribed "Year 3 of Kanishka" (AD 130).[122]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBodhisattva_dedicated_by_Bhikshu_Bala_at_Sarnath_123_CE.jpg)
![Kanishka I: Kimbell seated Bodhisattva, with inscription "Year 4 of Kanishka" (AD 131).[note 7][123][124] Another similar statue has "Year 32 of Kanishka".[125]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKimbell_seated_Buddha_with_attendants%2c_Mathura.jpg)
![Kanishka I: Buddha from Loriyan Tangai with inscription mentioning the "year 318" of the Yavana era (AD 143).[126]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aLoriya_Tangai_Buddha.jpg)
![Vasudeva I: Hashtnagar Buddha and its piedestal, inscribed with "year 384" of the Yavana era (c. AD 209).[126]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aHashtnagar_Buddha_and_piedestal.jpg)
![Vasudeva I: Mamane Dheri Buddha, inscribed with "Year 89", probably of the Kanishka era (AD 216).[126]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMamane_Dheri_sculpture_Year_89.jpg)
![Kanishka II: Statue of Hariti from Skarah Dheri, Gandhara, "Year 399" of the Yavana era (AD 244).[126]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aHariti_(Gandhara).jpg)
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