 A Kuki woman | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
|---|---|
 India | Not stated |
 Myanmar | Not stated |
 Bangladesh | Not stated |
| Languages | |
| Kuki-Chin languages | |
| Religion | |
| PredominantlyChristianity (Baptist); historicallyAnimism with sizeable minorities followingAnimism,Judaism (Bnei Menashe) andIslam[1] | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Chins · Halams · Mizos · Zomis · Others (Karbis,Nagas,Meiteis,Kachins) | |
TheKuki people, orKuki-Zo people,[2] are an ethnic group in theNortheastern Indian states ofManipur,Nagaland,Assam,Meghalaya,Tripura andMizoram,[3] as well as the neighbouring countries ofBangladesh andMyanmar. The Kukis form one of the largesthill tribe communities in this region. In Northeast India, they are present in all states exceptArunachal Pradesh.[4][5] TheChin people of Myanmar and theMizo people of Mizoram are kindred tribes of the Kukis. Collectively, they are termed theZo people.
Some fifty tribes of Kuki peoples in India are recognised asscheduled tribes in India,[6] based on the dialect spoken by that particular Kuki community as well as their region of origin.
The term "Kuki" is anexonym: it was used byBengalis to refer to the tribes inhabitingPatkai–Arakan Yomas, the eastern extension of the Himalayas running north–south between India and Myanmar.[7] The term is witnessed in the chronicles ofTripura from the reign of Dhanya Manikya (r. 1490–1515) and fairly regularly afterwards.[8] From even earlier, a couplet in Sanskrit is found mentioning a 12th century land grant inKukisthana (Kuki-land).[9]The Tibetan Buddhist writerTaranatha (1575–1634) wrote a description of the Kuki (Ko-ki) country, including in it almost the entire eastern hill range and beyond.[10] The term also occurs in traditionalMeitei hymns where the Kuki king is praised along with the Meitei king.[11]
The term came into British usage in 1777, when the chief ofChittagong appealed to the British governor generalWarren Hastings for help against Kuki raids from the hills.[12][13]
The same collection of tribes were called "Chins" by the Burmese (spelt "Khyangs" in the original Burmese spelling).[14][15]The British also used the term "Lushais" to refer to the tribes inhabiting theLushai Hills region to the south of theManipur valley, eventually dividing it into separate "Lushai Hills" in India and "Chin Hills" in Burma.
Over time, the British came to distinguish the tribes currently called "Kukis" from the remaining "Lushais". An Intelligence Branch report from 1907 listedRalte,Paite,Thadou,Lakher,Hmar andPoi tribes among Kukis. It stated that each of these tribes had its own language, and these languages were unintelligible to the "Lushais".[16]
The Manipuris used the term "Khongjai"[a] to refer to the tribes to the south and southwest of theImphal Valley,[17] a usage witnessed from 1508.[18] This appears to have been a geographical term.[b] The "Old Kuki" tribes in Manipur were referred to by their individual names, which were also partly of geographical origin.
Some Kuki and Chin tribes reject both of these terms as being of colonial origin, and use the self-designation "Zo", which is a generic term that has variants in most Kuki-Chin dialects. "Zomi" (meaning "Zo people") is also used.[20][21] The term "Kuki" is still enthusiastically adopted by theThadou language-speaking clans. Thus, "Kuki" is sometimes used in thisnarrow sense to refer to the Thadou-speaking Kukis, with even the Thadou language referred to as the "Kuki language".[22]
By 2023, a consensus seems to have developed among the Kuki tribes of Manipur to use the compound term "Kuki-Zo" to refer to themselves.[23][24][2]
Ethnologist C. A. Soppitt argued that the Kuki tribes must have settled in region west ofIrrawaddy River from before the 11th century, based on the fact that they had no traces ofBuddhism, which was already prevalent in Burma by that time.[25][26] He grouped the Kuki tribes into two broad classes:Hrangkhol along with the co-tribeBiate in one class, andChangsan along with the co-tribeThadou in the other class. Each of them was grouped with several subtribes.[27] Soppitt suggested that, by the 16th century, the Hrangkhols and Biate inhabited the Lushai Hills region (currently divided betweenMizoram andChin State). He believed that they were pushed out by Changsan, who moved in from the east along with Thadou, forcing them to move to theNorth Cachar Hills,Manipur andTripura. Further, the Changsan–Thadou combine was believed to have been in turn forced out by newer tribes in the 19th century, and then followed the same routes as the earlier tribes. The first two groups were referred to asOld Kukis andNew Kukis by the British administrators, which did not receive endorsement from Soppitt.[28] Modern scholars also disapprove the terminology of "Old Kukis" and "New Kukis", but it does appear that the two groups followed different migration routes and thus developed significant cultural differences.[29]
Per the 1881 census, the Kukis are estimated to have numbered 20,000 in the North Cachar Hills (present-dayDima Hasao district), 15,000 in the Naga Hills (present-dayNagaland), 30,000–40,000 inManipur and 6,000 in Tipperah (Tripura). In addition, the plains ofCachar had 6,000 people.[30] TheGazetteer of Manipur (1886), based on the same census, noted that the Kukis of Manipur wee composed of approximately 8,000 "Old Kukis" and 17,000 "New Kukis".[31] Borders of Manipur were expanded after this date to include the Kuki-inhabited southern parts of the presentChurachandpur andChandel districts, adding further Kuki populations to the state of Manipur.[c] During theKuki Rebellion of 1917–1919, the Kukis in Manipur were estimated to number 40,000.[33]
Cheitharol Kumbaba, the court chronicle of the Manipur kings, mentions various Kuki tribes and clans from 1404 onwards.[18] The largest of the Kuki tribes, theThadous, lived in the southern hills of the present-day Manipur, which was ungoverned territory for most of the historical period.[35]The Manipuris referred to them as "Khongjais".[d][36][37] The naming was apparently based on a village called "Khongchai" in the Tuipui river valley,[e] with the surrounding hills also referred to as Khongjai Hills. The Manipur rulerBhagya Chandra (also known as Jai Singh) made war on this region in 1786, and subjugated the Kuki chieftain in the central village.[19][38] Other regions in southern hills remained relatively untouched until 1894 when the British defined the border of the Manipur state to include the southern hills.[39]
The term "Kuki" to refer to these tribes was introduced by the British in the 1820s. By 1850s, they imported the terminology of "New Kuki" for the Khongjai tribes and "Old Kuki" for the other Kuki tribes such asKom andAimol.[19] The scholars of Kuki Research Forum consider the terminology misleading because the historical record does not justify such a progression in time.[18]
The British testimony regarding Kukis in Manipur was variable. British Commissioner Pemberton wrote in 1835 that the Khongjais stretched along the hills from the south of the Manipur valley to theArakan Mountains.[40]British Residents, William McCulloch (1844–1863) and Colonel Johnstone (1877–1886), wrote that Khongjais had long been subjects of Manipur, but "new immigrants" of them came through between 1830 and 1840. They "poured into the hill tracts" in large numbers, according to the Residents, driving away the older inhabitants. The Residents believed that these Khongjais were driven north by stronger tribes from the south, and hence settled all around the Imphal Valley.[41][42]
Scholar Pum Khan Pau notes that, around 1830, when the British established a political agency in Manipur, the area to the south of present-day Manipur (Tonzang andTedim townships of present-dayChin State) witnessed the rise of a powerfulSukte chieftain called Khan Thuam. Along with his son Kam Hau, he embarked upon a territorial expansion, pushing the less powerful tribes towards the border of Manipur. But many tribesmen also submitted to the Suktes, paid tribute, and participated in the expansion process. This period witnessed many raids from the south on the border of Manipur, which was roughly in line with the southern boundary of the Manipur valley.[43] A popular folk song summarised the position of Khan Thuam:[44]
What I rule extends to Manipur in the north, and ends at Falam in the south;
Manipur to the north and Falam to the south, I am the tiger in the middle.
After Khan Thuam's death, his dominion came to be divided between his elder son Kam Hau, based atMualpi and the younger son Za Pau, based atTedim. The combined tribe earned the name "Kamhau-Sukte" and became "one of the most dreaded powers in Manipur, Lushai Hills and the Kale-Kabaw Valley".[45]
The domain of the Kamhau-Sukte tribes extended all the way to the south of the Manipur valley, encompassing major portions of the present-dayChurachandpur andChandel districts, driving the tribes in these districts further north. Their movement threatened the Naga tribes to the north, in particular theKabuis to the west of the Manipur valley. McCulloch arranged for a line of Kuki settlements to the south of their area to serve as a buffer and armed the settlers. These villages came to be known as "sepoy villages".[46][47]According to McCulloch, sepoy villages were also set up along the southern frontier of the Manipur valley.[48]
According to modern scholars, the British administrators overemphasized the Kukis' "migration from south", because they had inadequate knowledge of the Kukis already present in the hills of Manipur.[49] In addition, some of the larger tribes such asThadous are said to have been native to the southern hills (Churachandpur and Chandel districts) that were later added to Manipur territory in the 1890s.[35]
An important landmark in the history of the Kuki people was the arrival of missionaries and the spread of Christianity among them. Missionary activity had considerable social, cultural and political ramifications while the acceptance of Christianity marked a departure from the traditional religion of the Kuki peoples as well as their ancestral customs and traditions. The spread of English education introduced the Kuki people to the "modern era".William Pettigrew, the first foreign missionary, came to Manipur on 6 February 1894 and was sponsored by theAmerican Baptist Mission Union. He, along with Dr. Crozier, worked in the North and the Northeast of Manipur. In the south, Watkins Robert of theWelsh Presbytery mission organised the Indo-BurmaThadou-Kuki Pioneer Mission in 1913. To have a broader scope, the mission's name was changed toNorth East India General Mission (NEIGM) in 1924.[50]
The first resistance to British hegemony by the Kuki people was theKuki Rebellion of 1917–19, also known as the Anglo-Kuki War, after which their territory was subjugated by the British.[51] Until their defeat in 1919, the Kukis had been an independent people ruled by their chieftains. The Dobashi, Lengjang Kuki was credited as responsible for preventing the Kukis of the Naga Hills from joining the Kuki Rebellion of Manipur.[52]
During World War II, seeing an opportunity to regain independence, the Kuki fought with theImperial Japanese Army and theIndian National Army led bySubhas Chandra Bose but the success of the Allied forces over the Axis group dashed their hopes.[53]
On 31 January 1860, Kuki Riang led the Kukis ofHill Tippera in raiding theChhagalnaiya plains (then under the administration of theTwipra Kingdom) which was inhabited by ethnicBengalis and British officers.[54] The Kukis looted the area of Bakhshganj and murdered Kamal Poddar of Basantpur. They then proceeded to molest Poddar's women until Guna Ghazi and Jakimal waged war against them in the village of Kulapara. Whilst the Kukis abducted 700 women,Munshi Abdul Ali informed the British authorities of the atrocities. 185 Britons were assassinated, 100 of them were kidnapped and the Kukis remained in the plains for one or two days. British troops and policemen were finally despatched fromNoakhali,Tipperah (Comilla) andChittagong to suppress them but the Kukis had already fled to the jungles of theprincely state and they never returned to Chhagalnaiya ever again.[55]
TheConstitution (Scheduled Tribes) (Part C States) Order, 1951 included "any Kuki tribe", "any Lushai tribe" and "any Naga tribe" (as umbrella termsamong thescheduled tribes in Assam, Manipur, and Tripura. Among the "any Kuki" classification, it listed 39 subtribes/clans.[56][57][58] The 1951 census recorded the Kuki population of Manipur as 69,855, that in Assam as 18,200,[f] and that in Tripura as 3,428.[33]
The 21 Kuki tribes of Manipur (as per the nomenclature used in the British colonial times) gathered together in 1948 to form an organisation calledKuki Company. They also contributed to the construction of Kuki Inn in Imphal, to serve as the office for the organisation. Soon afterwards, frictions developed over the use of theThadou language for the business of the organisation.[g] As a result, almost all the tribes other thanThadou Kukis left the Kuki Company, and formed a separateKhulmi National Union.[59] In 1950s, ten Old Kuki tribes changed their affiliation to 'Naga', induced to do so by theTangkhuls.[h] Seven New Kuki tribes eventually adopted theZomi identity in the 1990s.[61]
In the 1950s, when theKaka Kalelkar Commission visited Manipur, there was a concerted attempt by the Kuki and Naga tribes to delineate each tribe separately in the Schedule Tribe Order's list. Consequently, in 1956, the umbrella terms such as 'any Kuki' and 'any Naga' were deleted, and 29 tribes of Manipur were listed individually. This revision completely left out other unlisted tribes from the scheduled tribes list. In other states of India, however, the old classification of "any Kuki tribe" remained. In 2003, the term "any Kuki tribes" was re-added to the list in Manipur as well.[56][57][58]
The land of the Kukis has a number ofcustoms andtraditions.
Sawm, a community centre for boys – was the centre of learning in which theSawm-upa (an elder) did the teaching, whileSawm-nu took care of chores, such as combing of the boy's hair, washing of the garments and making the beds. The best students were recommended to the King's or the Chief's service, and eventually would achieve the office ofSemang andPachong (ministers) in their courts, orgal –lamkai (leaders, warriors) in the army.[62]
Lawm (a traditional type of youth club) was an institution in which boys and girls engaged in social activities for the benefit of the individual and the community. It was also another learning institution. Every Lawm has aLawm-upa (a senior member), aTo’llai-pao (an overseer or superintendent) and aLawm-tangvo (assistant superintendent). Besides being a source of traditional learning, the institution of the Lawm also facilitated the transmission of both technical as well as practical knowledge to its members, especially with regard to particular methods offarming,hunting,fishing and sporting activities such asKung–Kal (high jump, especially over a choicemithun),Ka’ng Ka’p,Ka’ngchoi Ka’p (top game),Suhtumkhawh (javelin throw using the heavy wooden implement for pounding-de-husking-paddy) andSo’ngse (shot put).[62]
The Lawm was also a centre where young Kuki people learned discipline and social etiquette. After harvest season, theLawm meet is celebrated with aLawm-se’l and, as a commemoration, a pillar is erected. The event is accompanied by dance and drinking rice-beer, which sometimes continues for days and nights.[citation needed]
With regard to governance, Semang (cabinet) is the annual assembly of a Kuki village community held at the Chief's residence represents the Inpi (Assembly). In such an assembly, the Chief and his Semang and Pachong (cabinet members and auxiliary of Inpi) and all the household heads of the village congregate to discuss and resolve matters relating to the village and the community.[63]
Prior to conversion in the early 20th century to Christianity by WelshBaptist missionaries, the Chin, Kuki, and Mizo peoples wereanimists; among their practices were ritualheadhunting.[64] Christian missionaries entered Manipur in the late 19th century but did not yet make inroads into the tribal areas. The victory of the British in Anglo-Kuki War of 1917–1919 opened up their mind of the Kukis to the Christian God of the British, who was thought of as the victor. This led them to rapidly convert to Christianity. Conversion to Christianity has transformed their ideas, mentality and social practices at the cost of their traditions and customs.[65] The majority of Kukis are nowChristians, with most belonging toProtestant denominations, especiallyBaptist.[66][better source needed]
Since the late 20th century, some of these peoples have begun followingMessianic Judaism. TheBnei Menashe (Hebrew:בני מנשה, "Sons ofMenasseh") are a small group within India'sNorth-Eastern border states ofManipur andMizoram; since the late 20th century, they claim descent from one of theLost Tribes of Israel and have adopted the practice of Judaism.[67] The Bnei Menashe are made up ofMizo, Kuki andChin peoples, who all speakTibeto-Burman languages, and whose ancestors migrated intonortheast India fromBurma mostly in the 17th and 18th centuries.[68] They are called Chin inBurma. In the late 20th century, an Israeli rabbi investigating their claims named them Bnei Menashe, based on their account of descent fromMenasseh. Of the 3.7 million people living in these two northeast states only about 9,000 belong to the Bnei Menashe, several thousands have emigrated to Israel. Some have supported other movements to separate from India.[citation needed]
Due to the close proximity to Muslim-majorityBengal, a Kuki Muslim community has also developed. They are said to be descendants of Kuki men who had marriedBengali Muslim women, a relationship requiring the husband to be a Muslim. They are mostly centred around the village of North Chandrapur in the Tripuri city ofUdaipur. Notable Kuki Muslims include Khirod Ali Sardar of Chandrapur and Ali Mia ofSonamura.[69] The community has been subject to scorn by other Kukis.[70]
| Indo-Aryans | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Austro-Asiatic | |||||||||||
| Dravidian | |||||||||||
| Tibeto-Burman | |||||||||||
| Others | |||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| Mizoram |  Naga woman | |
|---|---|---|
| Nagaland | ||
| Meghalaya | ||
| Arunachal Pradesh | ||
| Manipur | ||
| Tripura | ||
| Assam | ||
| Sikkim | ||
| Kuki tribes including: | ||
| Naga tribes including: | ||
