The KLA was formed in the early 1990s to fight against the discrimination ofethnic Albanians and the repression of political dissent by the Serbian authorities, which started after the suppression ofKosovo's autonomy and other discriminatory policies againstAlbanians bySerbian leaderSlobodan Milošević in 1989.[65][66] The KLA initiated its first campaign in 1995, after Kosovo's case was left out of theDayton Agreement and it had become clear thatPresident Rugova's strategy ofpeaceful resistance had failed to bring Kosovo onto the international agenda.[67] In June 1996, the group claimed responsibility for acts ofsabotage targeting Kosovo police stations, during theKosovo Insurgency.[68][69] In 1997, the organization acquired a large quantity of arms throughweapons smuggling fromAlbania, following arebellion in which weapons were looted from the country's police and army posts. In early 1998, KLA attacks targeting Yugoslav authorities in Kosovo resulted in an increased presence of Serb paramilitaries and regular forces who subsequently began pursuing a campaign of retribution targeting KLA sympathisers and political opponents;[70] this campaign killed 1,500 to 2,000 civilians and KLA combatants, and had displaced 370,000 Kosovar Albanians by March 1999.[71][72]
On 20 March 1999, Yugoslav forces began a massive campaign of repression and expulsions of Kosovar Albanians following the withdrawal of theOSCEKosovo Verification Mission (KVM) and the failure of the proposedRambouillet Agreement.[71][73] In response to this, NATO intervened with an aerial bombing campaign that began on March 24, justifying it on humanitarian grounds.[74] The war ended with theKumanovo Agreement, signed on 9 June 1999, with Yugoslav and Serb forces[75] agreeing to withdraw from Kosovo to make way for an international presence. NATO forces entered Kosovo on June 12.[76][77] The NATO bombing campaign has remained controversial.[78] It did not gain the approval of theUN Security Council and it caused at least 488 Yugoslav civilian deaths,[79] including substantial deaths of Kosovarrefugees.[80][81][82]
In 2001, a UN administered Supreme Court based in Kosovo found that there had been a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments against the Albanian population, and that Yugoslav troops had tried to force them out of Kosovo, but not to eradicate them and therefore it was notgenocide.[83] After the war, a list was compiled which documented that over 13,500 people were killed or went missing during the two year conflict.[84] The Yugoslav and Serb forces caused the displacement of between 1.2 million[85] and 1.45 million Kosovo Albanians.[86] After the war, around 200,000 Serbs, Romani, and other non-Albanians fled Kosovo and many of the remaining civilians were victims of abuse.[87][88][89]
The modern Albanian-Serbian conflict has its roots in theexpulsion of Albanians in 1877–1878 from areas that were incorporated into thePrincipality of Serbia.[93][94] Muslim Albanians residing in theSanjak of Niš were quickly expelled after Ottomans had lost control of the region. Modern estimates put the number of expelled Albanians to 50,000–130,000 Albanian refugees.[95][96][97][98] As a result, some Albanian refugees who settled in Kosovo retaliated by attacking the local Serb population.[99] From 1830 to 1876, there had also been aforced migration of up to 150,000 Albanians from the Principality.[100][101][102] The conflict became more intense at the end of the 19th century, and in 1901 there weremassacres of Serbs using weapons not handed back to the Ottomans following theGreco-Turkish War of 1897.[103]
Tensions between the Serbian and Albanian communities in Kosovo simmered throughout the 20th century and occasionally erupted into major violence, particularly during theFirst Balkan War (1912–1913),World War I (1914–1918), andWorld War II (1939–1945).[104] TheAlbanian revolt of 1912 in Kosovo resulted in the Ottoman Empire agreeing to the creation of anAlbanian quasi-state but Ottoman forces were soon driven out by opportunistic Bulgarian, Serbian and Montenegrin troops.[105] In the ensuingBalkan Wars, at least 50,000 Albanians weremassacred in the present-day territory of Kosovo by theSerbian regular army and irregularKomitadjis with the intention of manipulating population statistics before the borders ofAlbania were recognized during theLondon Conference of 1912–1913, after the latter proposed the drawing of the borders of Albania based on ethnic statistics.[106][107]
After World War I Kosovo was incorporated into the Serb-dominatedKingdom of Yugoslavia despite the Albanian community's demands for union with Albania.[104] Albanian rebels started theDrenica-Dukagjin Uprisings, which ended with the rebellion being crushed after the fall of the government ofFan Noli in Albania in December 1924 and the subsequent withdrawal of support for theCommittee for the National Defence of Kosovo byPresident Zog. Between 1918 and 1939, Yugoslavia expelled hundreds of thousands of Albanians and promoted the settlement ofmostly Serb colonists in the region, while Albanian language schools were prohibited.[108] After theAxis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941, most of Kosovo was assigned to Italian-controlled Albania, with the rest being controlled by Germany and Bulgaria. During the occupation, Albanian collaborators persecuted Serb and Montenegrin settlers,[109] with thousands killed and between 70,000 and 100,000expelled from Kosovo or sent toconcentration camps in order toAlbanianize the province.[110][111] The return of the expelled colonists was made next to impossible by a decree from Yugoslav leaderJosip Broz Tito, followed by a new law in August 1945, which disallowed the return of colonists who had taken land from Albanian peasants.[112]
The period of 1948–1963 in Kosovo was characterized by a brutal crackdown against Albanian nationalists byAleksandar Ranković and hissecret police (the UDBA).[116] In 1955, astate of emergency was declared in order to quell unrest that had purportedly been instigated by terror groups from Albania.[117] Following Ranković's ouster in 1966, Tito and his League of Communists Party granted more powers to republics and attempted to improve the political, social and economic situation in Kosovo.[117] In November 1968, large-scale demonstrations took place in Kosovo which were quelled by Yugoslav forces, precipitated by Albanian demands for separate republics in Kosovo and Macedonia.[117] Albanian students and intellectuals pushed for an Albanian-language university and greater representative powers for Albanians in both the Serbian and Yugoslav state bodies.[116]
TheUniversity of Pristina was established as an independent institution in 1970, ending a long period when the institution had been run as an outpost ofUniversity of Belgrade. The lack of Albanian-language educational materials in Yugoslavia hampered Albanian education in Kosovo, so an agreement was struck withAlbania itself to supply textbooks.
In 1974 Kosovo's political status improved further when a newYugoslav constitution granted an expanded set ofpolitical rights. Along withVojvodina, Kosovo wasdeclared a province and gained many of the powers of a fully-fledged republic: a seat on thefederal presidency and its own assembly, police force and national bank.[119][120] While trying to balance the interests of Albanians and Serbs, this effectively stratified both communities and prompted Serb fears of Kosovo seceding from Yugoslavia.[116][121] Student demonstrations continued throughout the 1970s, resulting in the imprisonment of many members of the Albanian National Liberation Movement, includingAdem Demaçi.[117][121] The political and administrative changes that began in 1968 resulted in Kosovo Albanians securing complete control over the province's political, social and cultural issues as well as growing ties between Kosovo and Albania. However, by 1980, economic impoverishment would become the catalyst for further unrest.[122]
After the death of Tito (1980–1989)
Provincial power was still exercised by theLeague of Communists of Kosovo, but now devolved mainly to ethnic Albanian communists. Tito's death on 4 May 1980 ushered in a long period of political instability, worsened by growing economic crisis and nationalist unrest. The first major outbreak occurred in Kosovo's main city,Pristina, when a protest of University of Pristina students over long queues in their university canteen rapidly escalated and in late March and early April 1981 spread throughout Kosovo, causing mass demonstrations in several towns, the1981 protests in Kosovo. The disturbances were quelled by thePresidency of Yugoslavia proclaiming astate of emergency, sending in riot police and the army, which resulted in numerous casualties.
In 1981 it was reported that some 4,000 Serbs moved from Kosovo tocentral Serbia after the Kosovo Albanian riots in March that resulted in several Serb deaths and thedesecration of Serbian Orthodox architecture and graveyards.[123] Serbia reacted with a plan to reduce the power of Albanians in the province and a propaganda campaign that claimed Serbs were being pushed out of the province primarily by the growing Albanian population, rather than the bad state of the economy.[124] 33 nationalist formations were dismantled byYugoslav police, who sentenced some 280 people (800 fined, 100 under investigation) and seized arms caches and propaganda material.[125] Albanian leaders of Kosovo maintained that Serbs were leaving mainly because of the poor economy. The worsening state of Kosovo's economy made the province a poor choice for Serbs seeking work. Albanians, as well as Serbs, tended to favor their compatriots when hiring new employees, but the number of jobs was too few for the population. Kosovo was the poorest entity of Yugoslavia: the average per capita income was $795, compared with the national average of $2,635. Due to its comparative poverty it received substantial amounts of Yugoslav development money, leading to quarrels amongst the republics regarding its quantity and utilization.[126]
In February 1982 a group of priests from Serbia proper petitioned their bishops to ask "why the Serbian Church is silent" and why it did not campaign against "the destruction, arson and sacrilege of the holy shrines of Kosovo".[127] In 1985, two Albanian farmers were falsely accused for theĐorđe Martinović incident, which turned into acause célèbre inSerbian politics and fueled hatred towards Albanians. In 1987, Aziz Kelmendi, an ethnic-Albanian recruit in theYugoslav Army (JNA) killed four fellow soldiers in amass shooting in JNA barracks, with only one of them being an ethnic Serb.[128]Serbian media blamed Albanian nationalism for the event and in response, Yugoslavia sent 400 federal police officers to Kosovo.[129] It was against this tense background that theSerbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SANU) conducted a survey of Serbs who had left Kosovo in 1985 and 1986, which concluded that a considerable number had left under pressure from Albanians.[130]
SAP Kosovo was the poorest entity ofSFR Yugoslavia. The deteriorating economic situation became a catalyst for increased inter-ethnic tensions in the 1980s.
The so-calledSANU Memorandum, leaked in September 1986, was a draft document that focused on the political difficulties facing Serbs in Yugoslavia, pointing to Tito's deliberate hobbling of Serbia's power and the difficulties faced by Serbs outsideSerbia proper. It paid special attention to Kosovo, arguing that the Kosovo Serbs were being subjected to "physical, political, legal and cultural genocide" in an "open and total war" that had been ongoing since the spring of 1981. It claimed that Kosovo's status in 1986 was a worse historical defeat for the Serbs than any event since liberation from the Ottomans in 1804, thus ranking it above such catastrophes as the World war occupations. The Memorandum's authors claimed that 200,000 Serbs had moved out of the province over the previous 20 years and warned that there would soon be none left "unless things changed radically." The remedy, according to the Memorandum, was for "genuine security and unambiguous equality for all peoples living in Kosovo and Metohija [to be] established" and "objective and permanent conditions for the return of the expelled [Serbian] nation [to be] created." It concluded that "Serbia must not be passive and wait and see what the others will say, as it has done so often in the past." The SANU Memorandum provoked split reactions: Albanians saw it as a call for Serbian supremacy at the local level, claiming the Serb emigrants had left Kosovo for economic reasons, while the Slovenes and Croats saw a threat in the call for a more assertive Serbia. Serbs were divided: many welcomed it, while the Communist old guard strongly attacked its message. One of those who denounced it wasSerbian Communist Party officialSlobodan Milošević.[131]
Slobodan Milošević andIvan Stambolić's 1987 visit to Kosovo marked the beginning of Milošević's rise to thePresidency, after he made the remarks "No one will beat you again," to a crowd of Serb protesters.
In April 1987, Serbian PresidentIvan Stambolić andSlobodan Milošević visited Kosovo with the intention of reducing tensions in the region. A Serb nationalist crowd had gathered near the hall where Milošević was supposed to deliver his speech inKosovo Polje. The crowd tried to break through the police cordon that was providing security for the gathering, and after clashing with the police, they chanted that Albanian policemen were beating them. Informed of the situation, Milošević walked out of the building and addressed the protesters, telling them "No one will beat you again".[132] He further called upon the crowd to resist the Albanian pressure to leave Kosovo. This speech marked the beginning of Milošević's use of nationalism to gain power, and he was appointedPresident of the Presidency of Serbia in May 1989.[133]
In November 1988 Kosovo's head of the provincial committee was arrested. In March 1989 Milošević announced an "anti-bureaucratic revolution" in Kosovo and Vojvodina, curtailing their autonomy as well as imposing a curfew and a state of emergency in Kosovo due to violent demonstrations, resulting in 24 deaths (including two policemen). Milošević and his government claimed that the constitutional changes were necessary to protect Kosovo's remaining Serbs against harassment from the Albanian majority.[134]
Constitutional amendments (1989–94)
On 17 November 1988Kaqusha Jashari andAzem Vllasi were forced to resign from the leadership of theLeague of Communists of Kosovo (LCK).[135][136][137] In early 1989 theSerbian Assembly proposed amendments to theConstitution of Serbia that would remove the word "Socialist" from the Serbian Republic's title, establish multi-party elections, remove the independence of institutions of the autonomous provinces such as Kosovo and rename Kosovo as theAutonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija.[138][139] In February Kosovar Albanians demonstrated in large numbers against the proposal, emboldened by striking miners.[137][140] Serbs in Belgrade protested against the Kosovo Albanian's separatism.[141] On 3 March 1989 thePresidency of Yugoslavia imposed special measures assigning responsibility for public security to the federal government.[140] On 23 March the Assembly of Kosovo voted to accept the proposed amendments although most Albanian delegates abstained.[140] In early 1990 Kosovar Albanians held mass demonstrations against the special measures, which were lifted on 18 April 1990 and responsibility for public security was again assigned to Serbia.[140][142]
On 26 June 1990 Serbian authorities barred access to the building of the Kosovo Assembly, citing special circumstances.[142] On 2 July 1990, 114 ethnic Albanian delegates of the 180-member Kosovo Assembly gathered in front of the closed building and declared Kosovo anindependent republic within Yugoslavia. On 5 July the Serbian Assembly dissolved the Kosovo Assembly.[142][140] Serbia also dissolved the provincial executive council and assumed full and direct control of the province.[143] Serbia took over management of Kosovo's principal Albanian-language media, halting Albanian-language broadcasts.[143] On 4 September 1990 Kosovar Albanians observed a 24-hour general strike, virtually shutting down the province.[143] On 5 August 1991, the Serbian Assembly suspended the main Albanian-language daily newspaper,Rilindja,[143][144] declaring its journalism unconstitutional.[145]
On 7 September 1990 the Constitution of Kosovo was promulgated by Albanian members of the disbanded Assembly of Kosovo.[146] Milošević responded by ordering the arrest of the deputies that participated in the meeting.[143] The new controversial Serbian Constitution was promulgated on 28 September 1990.[139] In September 1991, Kosovar Albanians held an unofficial referendum in which they voted overwhelmingly for independence.[140] On 24 May 1992 Kosovar Albanians held unofficial elections for an assembly and president of the Republic of Kosovo and electedIbrahim Rugova as president.[140]
114 delegates of theSAP Kosovo Assembly gathered in front of the closedAssembly building on July 2, 1990, and declaredKosovo an independent Republic within Yugoslavia.
During this time, theRepublic of Kosova started to establish parallel institutions, which were not recognized by Serbia. The presence of Serbian security structures in Kosovo increased considerably and Kosovo was put into constant curfews. Hundreds of thousands of ethnic Albanians were fired from government and state-run institutions. By 1990 most Albanian schools were closed and the Serbian government required Albanian teachers to sign loyalty oaths in order to remain employed, effectively asking them to recognize Serbia, and notRepublic of Kosova as their country, which the vast majority refused to sign. By 1991 all Albanian schoolteachers and academic staff had been dismissed and a parallel education system was established by the government of theRepublic of Kosova, using donated private homes as classrooms. 350,000 Albanians emigrated out of the region due to economic and social pressures over the next seven years, and the Milosevic regime encouraged Serb settlement to the region.[147]United Nations Special RapporteurTadeusz Mazowiecki reported on 26 February 1993 that the police had intensified their repression of the Albanian population since 1990, including depriving them of their basic rights, destroying their education system, and conducting large numbers of political dismissals of civil servants.[145]
Milosevic ordered the abolishment of the Academy of Sciences in Kosovo, Albanian street names were changed to Serbian ones, Serbs were allowed to enter theUniversity of Pristina and therefore received preferential treatment, and Albanians were fired from their posts or lost their homes to Serbs (130,000 between 1990-1995).[148]
According to an Amnesty International report in 1998, due to dismissals from the Yugoslav government it was estimated that by 1998 unemployment rate in the Kosovar Albanian population was higher than 70%.[149] The economic apartheid imposed by Belgrade was aimed at impoverishing an already poor Kosovo Albanian population.[149]
In 1996, 16,000 Serb refugees from Bosnia and Croatia were settled in Kosovo by the Milosevic government, sometimes against their will.[150]
Continuing repression[151] convinced many Albanians that only armed resistance would change the situation. On 22 April 1996, four attacks on Serbian security personnel were carried out almost simultaneously in different parts of Kosovo. The KLA, a hitherto-unknown organisation, subsequently claimed responsibility.[152] The nature of the KLA was at first mysterious. It initially seemed that their only goals were to stop repression from Yugoslav authorities.[153] KLA goals also included the establishment of aGreater Albania, a state stretching into surroundingMacedonia,Montenegro andsouthern Serbia.[154][155] In July 1998, in an interview forDer Spiegel, KLA spokesmanJakup Krasniqi publicly announced that the KLA's goal was the unification of all Albanian-inhabited lands.[155]Sulejman Selimi, a General Commander of KLA in 1998–1999, said:[154]
There isde facto Albanian nation. The tragedy is that European powers afterWorld War I decided to divide that nation between several Balkan states. We are now fighting to unify the nation, to liberate all Albanians, including those in Macedonia, Montenegro, and other parts of Serbia. We are not just a liberation army for Kosovo.
While Rugova promised to uphold the minority rights of Serbs in Kosovo, the KLA was much less tolerant. Selimi stated that "Serbs who have blood on their hands would have to leave Kosovo".[154]
The crisis escalated in December 1997 at thePeace Implementation Council meeting inBonn, where the international community (as defined in theDayton Agreement) agreed to give theHigh Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina sweeping powers, including the right to dismiss elected leaders. At the same time, Western diplomats insisted that Kosovo be discussed and that Yugoslavia be responsive to Albanian demands there. The delegation from Yugoslavia stormed out of the meetings in protest.[156] This was followed by the return of theContact Group that oversaw the last phases of the Bosnian conflict and declarations from European powers demanding that Yugoslavia solve the problem in Kosovo.
The KLA received financial and material support from the Kosovo Albanian diaspora.[157][67] In early 1997,Albania collapsed into chaos following the fall of PresidentSali Berisha.Albanian Armed Forces stockpiles were looted with impunity by criminal gangs, with much of the hardware ending up in western Kosovo and boosting the growing KLA arsenal.Bujar Bukoshi, shadow prime minister in exile (inZürich, Switzerland), created a group called FARK (Armed Forces of the Republic of Kosova). FARK and the KLA were initially rivals, but later FARK merged into the KLA. The Yugoslav government considered the KLA to be "terrorists" and "insurgents" who indiscriminately attacked police and civilians, while most Albanians saw the KLA as "freedom fighters".
On 23 February 1998, the United States Special Envoy to the Balkans, Robert Gelbard, stated inPristina that "the KLA was without any question a terrorist group."[158][159] He later told theHouse Committee on International Relations that "while the KLA had committed 'terrorist acts,' it had 'not been classified legally by the U.S. Government as a terrorist organization.'"[160] However, his 23 February statements have been seen as an unwitting "green light" to the Serbian crackdown that followed less than a week later.[161]
War begins
KLA attacks intensified, centering on theDrenica valley area with the compound ofAdem Jashari being a focal point. Days after Robert Gelbard described the KLA as a terrorist group, Serbian police responded to the KLA attacks in theLikošane area, and pursued some of the KLA to Čirez, resulting in the deaths of 16 Albanian fighters and 26 civilians in theattacks on Likoshane and Çirez.[162] and four Serbian policemen.[163] The KLA's goal was to merge its Drenica stronghold with their stronghold in Albania proper, and this would shape the first few months of the fighting.[citation needed]
The Jashari family compound in Prekaz, where KLA leaderAdem Jashari and 60 other people, mainly civilians, were murdered in theattack on Prekaz
Serb police then began to pursueAdem Jashari and his followers in the village of Donje Prekaze. On 5 March 1998, amassive firefight at the Jashari compound led to the massacre of 60 Albanians, of which eighteen were women and ten were under the age of sixteen.[164] The event provoked massive condemnation from western capitals.Madeleine Albright said that "this crisis is not an internal affair of the FRY".[165]
On 24 March, Yugoslav forces surrounded the village of Glodjane andattacked a rebel compound there.[166] Despite superior firepower, the Yugoslav forces failed to destroy the KLA unit, which had been their objective. Although there were deaths and severe injuries on the Albanian side, the insurgency inGlodjane was far from stamped out. The village was in fact to become one of the strongest centres of resistance in the upcoming war.
A new Yugoslav government was formed at this time, led by theSocialist Party of Serbia and theSerbian Radical Party. Ultra-nationalist Radical Party chairmanVojislav Šešelj became a deputy prime minister. This increased the dissatisfaction with the country's position among Western diplomats and spokespersons.
In early April, Serbia arranged fora referendum on the issue of foreign interference in Kosovo. Serbian voters decisively rejected foreign interference in the crisis.[167] Meanwhile, the KLA claimed much of the area in and aroundDeçan and ran a territory based in the village of Glodjane, encompassing its surroundings.
On 21 April 1998, Yugoslav forces started shelling the village of Baballoq. TheKLA, composed of 140 volunteers from the village and other KLA soldiers set up a defensive line which stopped the Yugoslav advance. The fighting lasted until August 1998 and started the Frontal War in theDukagjini region.[168][169]
On 31 May 1998, the Yugoslav army and the Serb Ministry of the Interior police began an operation to clear the border of the KLA. NATO's response to this offensive was mid-June's Operation Determined Falcon, a NATO show of force over the Yugoslav borders.[170]
During this time, Yugoslav President Milošević reached an arrangement withBoris Yeltsin ofRussia to stop offensive operations and prepare for talks with the Albanians, who refused to talk to the Serbian side throughout the crisis, but would talk with the Yugoslav government. In fact, the only meeting between Milošević andIbrahim Rugova happened on 15 May in Belgrade, two days after the special presidential envoyRichard Holbrooke announced that it would take place. Holbrooke threatened Milošević that if he did not obey, "what's left of your country will implode".[171] A month later, Holbrooke visited the border areas affected by the fighting in early June, where he was famously photographed with the KLA. The publication of these images sent a signal to the KLA, its supporters and sympathisers, and to observers in general, that the US was decisively backing the KLA and the Albanian population in Kosovo.
The Yeltsin agreement required Milošević to allow international representatives to set up a mission in Kosovo to monitor the situation there. TheKosovo Diplomatic Observer Mission (KDOM) began operations in early July 1998. The US government welcomed this part of the agreement, but denounced the initiative's call for a mutual cease fire. Rather, the US demanded that the Serbian-Yugoslavian side should cease fire "without linkage ... to a cessation in terrorist activities".[citation needed]
All through June and into mid-July, the KLA maintained its advance. The KLA surroundedPeja andGjakova, and set up an interim capital in the town ofMalisheva (north ofRahovec). KLA troops infiltratedSuva Reka and the northwest of Pristina. They moved on to capture theBelaćevac coal pits in late June, threatening energy supplies in the region. In July, KLA activity was reported south ofPrizren. Their tactics as usual focused mainly onguerrilla andmountain warfare, and harassing and ambushing Yugoslav forces and Serb police patrols.
The tide turned in mid-July when the KLAcaptured Rahovec. On 17 July 1998, two nearby villages, Retimlije and Opteruša, were also captured, while less systematic events took place in the larger Serb-populated village of Velika Hoča. The Orthodox monastery of Zočište three miles (4.8 km) was looted and torched.[172] This led to a series of Serb and Yugoslav offensives which would continue into the beginning of August.
A new set of KLA attacks in mid-August triggered Yugoslavian operations in south-central Kosovo, south of the Pristina-Peja road. In early September, Yugoslav forces beganan offensive aroundPrizren but, despite their advantage in firepower, were unable to capture the KLA stronghold there. In western Kosovo, around Peja, another offensive caused condemnation as international officials expressed fear that a large column of displaced people would be attacked.
In early mid-September, for the first time, KLA activity was reported in northern Kosovo aroundPodujevo. Finally, in late September, a Yugoslav determined effort was made to clear the KLA out of the northern and central parts of Kosovo and out of the Drenica valley. During this time many threats were made from Western capitals but these were tempered somewhat by the elections in Bosnia, as they did not want Serbian Democrats and Radicals to win. Following the elections, the threats intensified once again. On 28 September,the mutilated corpses of a family were discovered by KDOM outside the village of Gornje Obrinje. The bloody image of a child's doll and streams of displaced persons rallied the international community to action.[173]
Morale
Morale was a serious problem for Serb forces; intelligence surveys found that many soldiers disagreed with their comrades' actions. One tank commander reported, "for the entire time I was in Kosovo, I never saw an enemy soldier and my unit was never once involved in firing at enemy targets. The tanks which cost $2.5 million each were used to slaughter Albanian children... I am ashamed".[174]
When retreating from Kosovo after NATO intervention, Yugoslav units appeared combat effective with high morale and displaying large holdings of undamaged equipment.[175] Weeks before the end of hostilities, David Fromkin noted that "it seemed possible that NATO unity might crack before Yugoslav morale did."[176] The announcement by President Clinton that the US would not deploy ground troops gave a tremendous boost to Serbian morale.[177]
UN, NATO, and OSCE (1998–1999)
Clinton talks on the phone about the Kosovo War
On 9 June 1998, US President Bill Clinton declared a "national emergency" (state of emergency) due to the "unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security andforeign policy of the United States" imposed by Yugoslavia and Serbia over the Kosovo War.[178]
On 23 September 1998, acting underChapter VII of the United Nations Charter, theUN Security Council adoptedResolution 1199. This expressed 'grave concern' at reports reaching the Secretary General that over 230,000 people had been displaced from their homes by 'the excessive and indiscriminate use of force by Serbian security forces and the Yugoslav Army',[179] demanding that all parties in Kosovo and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia cease hostilities and maintain a ceasefire. On 24 September theNorth Atlantic Council (NAC) of NATO issued an "activation warning" taking NATO to an increased level of military preparedness for both a limited air option and a phased air campaign in Kosovo.[180] The other major issue for those who saw no option but to resort to the use of force was the estimated 250,000 displaced Albanians, 30,000 of whom were out in the woods, without warm clothing or shelter, with winter fast approaching.
Meanwhile, the US Ambassador to the Republic of Macedonia,Christopher Hill, was leadingshuttle diplomacy between an Albanian delegation, led by Rugova, and the Yugoslav and Serbian authorities. These meetings were shaping the peace plan to be discussed during a period of planned NATO occupation of Kosovo. During a period of two weeks, threats intensified, culminating in NATO's Activation Order being given. NATO was ready to begin airstrikes, and Richard Holbrooke went to Belgrade in the hope of reaching an agreement with Milošević. Officially, the international community demanded an end to fighting. It specifically demanded that Yugoslavia end its offensives against the KLA whilst attempting to convince the KLA to drop its bid for independence. Attempts were made to persuade Milošević to permit NATO peacekeeping troops to enter Kosovo. This, they argued, would allow for the Christopher Hill peace process to proceed and yield a peace agreement.
On 13 October 1998, theNorth Atlantic Council issued activation orders for the execution of both limitedair strikes and a phasedair campaign in Yugoslavia which would begin in approximately 96 hours.[181] On 15 October the NATOKosovo Verification Mission (KVM) Agreement for a ceasefire was signed, and the deadline for withdrawal was extended to 27 October.[182] Difficulties implementing the agreement were reported, as clashes continued between government troops and the guerrillas.[183] The Serbian withdrawal commenced on or around 25 October 1998, andOperation Eagle Eye commenced on 30 October.[182]
The KVM was a large contingent of unarmedOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) peace monitors (officially known as verifiers) that moved into Kosovo. Their inadequacy was evident from the start. They were nicknamed the "clockwork oranges" in reference to their brightly coloured vehicles. Fighting resumed in December 1998 after both sides broke the ceasefire,[184] and this surge in violence culminated in the killing of Zvonko Bojanić, the Serb mayor of the town ofKosovo Polje. Yugoslav authorities responded by launching a crackdown against KLA militants.[185]
The January to March 1999 phase of the war brought increasing insecurity in urban areas, including bombings and murders. Such attacks took place during theRambouillet talks in February and as the Kosovo Verification Agreement unraveled in March. Killings on the roads continued and increased. There were military confrontations in, among other places, theVushtrri area in February and the heretofore unaffectedKaçanik area in early March.
On 15 January 1999 theRačak massacre occurred when 45 Kosovan Albanians were killed.[186] The bodies had been discovered by OSCE monitors, including Head of MissionWilliam G. Walker, and foreign news correspondents.[187][188] Yugoslavia denied a massacre took place.[188] The Račak massacre was the culmination of the conflict between the KLA and Yugoslav forces that had continued throughout the winter of 1998–1999. The incident was immediately condemned as a massacre by theWestern countries and theUnited Nations Security Council, and later became the basis of one of the charges of war crimes leveled against Milošević and his top officials. This massacre was the turning point of the war.NATO decided that the conflict could only be settled by introducing a military peacekeeping force under the auspices of NATO, to forcibly restrain the two sides. Pristina, the capital of Kosovo, had been subjected to heavy firefights and segregation according to OSCE reports.[189]
The Rambouillet Conference (January–March 1999)
On 30 January 1999, NATO issued a statement announcing that theNorth Atlantic Council had agreed that "the NATO Secretary General may authorise air strikes against targets on FRY territory" to "[compel] compliance with the demands of the international community and [to achieve] a political settlement".[190] While this was mainly a threat to the Milošević government, it also included a coded threat to the Albanians: any decision would depend on the "position and actions of the Kosovo Albanian leadership and all Kosovo Albanian armed elements in and around Kosovo."[190]
Also on 30 January 1999, the Contact Group issued a set of "non-negotiable principles" which made up a package known as "Status Quo Plus" – effectively the restoration of Kosovo's pre-1990 autonomy within Serbia, plus the introduction of democracy and supervision by international organisations. It also called for a peace conference to be held in February 1999 at theChâteau de Rambouillet, outside Paris.[citation needed]
TheRambouillet talks began on 6 February 1999, withNATO Secretary GeneralJavier Solana negotiating with both sides. They were intended to conclude by 19 February. The FR Yugoslavian delegation was led by then president of SerbiaMilan Milutinović, while Milošević himself remained in Belgrade. This was in contrast to the 1995Dayton conference that ended the war in Bosnia, where Milošević negotiated in person.[citation needed] The absence of Milošević was interpreted as a sign that the real decisions were being made back in Belgrade, a move that aroused criticism in Yugoslavia as well as abroad; Kosovo's Serbian Orthodox bishopArtemije traveled all the way to Rambouillet to protest that the delegation was wholly unrepresentative. At this time, speculation about an indictment of Milošević for war crimes was rife, so his absence may have been motivated by fear of arrest.[citation needed]
Equipment of 72nd Special BrigadeYugoslav Army in the 1999 Kosovo War
The first phase of negotiations was successful. In particular, a statement was issued by the Contact Group co-chairmen on 23 February 1999 that the negotiations "have led to aconsensus on substantial autonomy for Kosovo, including on mechanisms for free and fair elections to democratic institutions, for the governance of Kosovo, for the protection of human rights and the rights of members of national communities; and for the establishment of a fair judicial system". They went on to say that "a political framework is now in place", leaving the further work of finalising "the implementation Chapters of the Agreement, including the modalities of theinvited international civilian and military presence in Kosovo".[191] While the Serbs agreed to an autonomous government, free elections, and the release of all political prisoners, the West also insisted on the presence of NATO troops.[192]
While the accords did not fully satisfy the Albanians, they were much too radical for the Yugoslavs, who responded by substituting a drastically revised text that even Russia (ally of FR Yugoslavia) found unacceptable. It sought to reopen the painstakingly negotiated political status of Kosovo and deleted all of the proposed implementation measures. Among many other changes in the proposed new version, it eliminated the entire chapter on humanitarian assistance and reconstruction, removed virtually all international oversight and dropped any mention of invoking "the will of the people [of Kosovo]" in determining the final status of the province.[193]
On 18 March 1999, the Albanian, US, and British delegations signed what became known as theRambouillet Accords, while the Yugoslav and Russian delegations refused. The accords called for NATO administration of Kosovo as an autonomous province within Yugoslavia, a force of 30,000 NATO troops to maintain order in Kosovo; an unhindered right of passage for NATO troops on Yugoslav territory, including Kosovo; and immunity for NATO and its agents to Yugoslav law. They would have also permitted a continuing Yugoslav army presence of 1,500 troops for border monitoring, backed by up to 1,000 troops to perform command and support functions, as well as a small number of border police, 2,500 ordinary MUP for public security purposes (although these were expected to draw down and to be transformed), and 3,000 local police.[194]
Although the Yugoslav Government cited military provisions of Appendix B of the Rambouillet provisions as the reason for its objections, claiming that it was an unacceptable violation of Yugoslavia's sovereignty, these provisions were essentially the same as had been applied to Bosnia for theSFOR (Stabilisation Force) mission there after the Dayton Agreement in 1995. The two sides did not discuss the issue in detail because of their disagreements on more fundamental problems.[195] In particular, the Serb side rejected the idea of any NATO troop presence in Kosovo to replace their security forces, preferring unarmed UN observers. Milošević himself had refused to discuss the annex after informing NATO that it was unacceptable, even after he was asked to propose amendments to the provisions which would have made them acceptable.[196]
After the failure at Rambouillet and the alternative Yugoslav proposal, international monitors from the OSCE withdrew on 22 March, to ensure their safety ahead of the anticipated NATO bombing campaign.[197] On 23 March, the Serbian assembly accepted the principle of autonomy for Kosovo, as well as the non-military aspects of the agreement, but rejected a NATO troop presence.[197][198]
In a 2009 judgement regarding six former Serb leaders charged with war crimes in Kosovo, theICTY noted that the causes of the breakdown in the negotiations at Rambouillet were complex and stated that "international negotiators did not take an entirely even-handed approach to the respective positions of the parties and tended to favour the Kosovo Albanians." It further recorded that, according to a witness, on 14 April 1999, at a meeting initiated by the White House with representatives of theSerbian-American community, PresidentBill Clinton had stated that "the provision for allowing a referendum for the Albanians in Kosovo went too far and that, if he were in the shoes of Milošević, he probably would not have signed the draft [Rambouillet] agreement either."[199]
On 23 March 1999 at 21:30 UTC,Richard Holbrooke returned to Brussels and announced that peace talks had failed and formally handed the matter to NATO for military action.[201][202] Hours before the announcement, Yugoslavia announced on national television it had declared a state of emergency, citing an imminent threat of war and began a huge mobilisation of troops and resources.[201][203]
The NATO bombing campaign lasted from 24 March to 11 June 1999, involving up to 1,000 aircraft operating mainly from bases inItaly and aircraft carriers stationed in theAdriatic.Tomahawkcruise missiles were also extensively used, fired from aircraft, ships, and submarines. With the exception of Greece, all NATO members were involved to some degree. Over the ten weeks of the conflict, NATO aircraft flew over 38,000 combat missions. For theGerman Air Force (Luftwaffe), it was the second time it had participated in a conflict since World War II, after theBosnian War.
The proclaimed goal of the NATO operation was summed up by its spokesman as "Serbs out, peacekeepers in, refugees back". That is, Yugoslav troops would have to leave Kosovo and be replaced by international peacekeepers to ensure that the Albanian refugees could return to their homes. The campaign was initially designed to destroy Yugoslav air defences and high-value military targets. It did not go very well at first, with bad weather hindering many sorties early on. NATO had seriously underestimated Milošević's will to resist: few in Brussels thought that the campaign would last more than a few days, and although the initial bombardment was not insignificant, it did not match the intensity of the bombing of Baghdad in 1991.
NATO military operations switched increasingly to attacking Yugoslav units on the ground, hitting targets as small as individual tanks and artillery pieces, as well as continuing with the strategic bombardment. This activity was heavily constrained by politics, as each target needed to be approved by all nineteen member states.Montenegro was bombed on several occasions, but NATO eventually desisted to prop up the precarious position of its anti-Milošević leader,Milo Đukanović.
Post-strike damage assessment of theSremska Mitrovica ordnance storage depot, Serbia
At the start of May, a NATO aircraft attacked an Albanian refugeeconvoy, believing it was a Yugoslav military convoy, killing around fifty people. NATO admitted its mistake five days later, and the Yugoslavs accused NATO of deliberately attacking the refugees.[207] A later report conducted by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) opined that "civilians were not deliberately attacked in this incident", and that "neither the aircrew nor their commanders displayed the degree of recklessness in failing to take precautionary measures which would sustain criminal charges."[208] On 7 May,NATO bombs hit the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade, killing three Chinese journalists and outraging Chinese public opinion. The United States and NATO later apologised for the bombing, saying that it occurred because of an outdated map provided by theCIA, although this was challenged by a joint report fromThe Observer (UK) andPolitiken (Denmark) newspapers,[209] which claimed that NATO intentionally bombed the embassy because it was being used as a relay station for Yugoslav army radio signals. The report by the newspaper contradicts findings in the same report by theICTY which stated that the root of the failures in target location "appears to stem from the land navigation techniques employed by an intelligence officer."[210] In another incident at theDubrava prison in Kosovo in May 1999, the Yugoslav government attributed as many as 95 civilian deaths to NATO bombing of the facility after NATO cited Serbian and Yugoslav military activity in the area;[211] aHuman Rights Watch report later concluded that at least nineteen ethnic Albanian prisoners had been killed by the bombing, but that an uncertain number – probably more than 70 – were killed by Serbian Government forces in the days immediately following the bombing.[211]
By the start of April, the conflict appeared little closer to a resolution, and NATO countries began to seriously consider conducting ground operations in Kosovo. British prime ministerTony Blair was a strong advocate of ground forces and pressured the United States to agree; his strong stance caused some alarm in Washington as US forces would be making the largest contribution to any offensive.[212] US President Bill Clinton was extremely reluctant to commit US forces for a ground offensive. Instead, Clinton authorised aCIA operation to look into methods to destabilise the Yugoslav government without training KLA troops.[213] At the same time,Finnish andRussian diplomatic negotiators continued to try to persuade Milošević to back down. Tony Blair would order 50,000 British soldiers to be made ready for a ground offensive: most of the availableBritish Army.[212]
Milošević finally recognised that Russia would not intervene to defend Yugoslavia despite Moscow's strong anti-NATO rhetoric. He thus accepted the conditions offered by a Finnish–Russian mediation team and agreed to a military presence within Kosovo headed by the UN, but incorporating NATO troops.
The Norwegian special forcesHærens Jegerkommando andForsvarets Spesialkommando cooperated with the KLA in gathering intelligence information. Preparing for an invasion on 12 June,Norwegian special forces worked with the KLA on the Ramno mountain on the border between North Macedonia and Kosovo and acted as scouts to monitor events in Kosovo. Together with British special forces, Norwegian special forces were the first to cross over the border into Kosovo. According to Keith Graves with the television network Sky News, the Norwegians were in Kosovo two days prior to the entry of other forces and were among the first into Pristina.[214] The Hærens Jegerkommando's and Forsvarets Spesialkommando's job was to clear the way between the contending parties and to make local deals to implement the peace deal between the Serbians and the Kosovo Albanians.[215][216]
Yugoslav army withdrawal and the entry of KFOR
On 3 June 1999, Milošević accepted the terms of an international peace plan to end the fighting, with the national parliament adopting the proposal amid contentious debate with delegates coming close to fistfights at some points.[217][218] On 10 June, theNorth Atlantic Council ratified the agreement and suspended air operations.[219]
US Marines march with local Albanian children down the main street of Zegra on 28 June 1999
On 12 June, after Milošević accepted the conditions, the NATO-ledpeacekeepingKosovo Force (KFOR) of 30,000 soldiers began entering Kosovo.[220] KFOR had been preparing to conduct combat operations, but in the end, its mission was only peacekeeping. The force was based upon theAllied Rapid Reaction Corps headquarters commanded by then Lieutenant GeneralMike Jackson of theBritish Army. It consisted of British forces (a brigade built from 4th Armored and 5th Airborne Brigades), aFrench Army Brigade, aGerman Army brigade, which entered from the west, while other forces advanced from the south, andItalian Army andUnited States Army brigades.
The first NATO troops to enter Pristina on the 12th of June 1999 wereNorwegian special forces fromForsvarets Spesialkommando (FSK) and soldiers from theBritishSpecial Air Service 22 Regiment, although to NATO's diplomatic embarrassment Russian troops arrived at the airport first. Norwegian soldiers were the first to come into contact with Russian troops at the airport. FSK's mission was to level the negotiating field between the belligerent parties, and to fine-tune the detailed, local deals needed to implement the peace deal between the Serbians and the Kosovo Albanians.[221][222][223][224]
US soldiers escort a Serbian civilian from his home in Zitinje after finding an automatic weapon, 26 July 1999
During the initial incursion, the US soldiers were greeted by Albanians cheering and throwing flowers as US soldiers and KFOR rolled through their villages. Although no resistance was met, three US soldiers from the Initial Entry Force were killed in accidents.[225]
On 1 October 1999, approximately 150 paratroopers from Alpha Company, 1/508th Airborne Battalion Combat Team fromVicenza,Italy parachuted intoUroševac as part of Operation Rapid Guardian. The purpose of the mission was primarily to warn Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević of NATO resolve and of its rapid military capability. One US soldier,Army Ranger Sgt. Jason Neil Pringle, was killed during operations after his parachute failed to deploy. The paratroopers of the 1/508th then joined paratroopers of the82nd Airborne and KFOR in patrolling various areas of Kosovo, without incident, through 3 October 1999.
On 15 December 1999, Staff Sergeant Joseph Suponcic of 3rd Battalion/10th Special Forces Group (Airborne) was killed, when theHMMWV in which he was a passenger struck ananti-tank mine planted by Albanians and meant for the Russian contingent with which SSG Suponcic's team was patrolling inKosovska Kamenica.
US soldiers maintain crowd control as Albanian residents ofVitina protest in the streets on 9 January 2000
Following the military campaign, the involvement of Russian peacekeepers proved to be tense and challenging to the NATO Kosovo force. The Russians expected to have an independent sector of Kosovo, only to be unhappily surprised with the prospect of operating under NATO command. Without prior communication or coordination with NATO, Russian peacekeeping forces entered Kosovo fromBosnia and Herzegovina and occupiedPristina International Airport ahead of the arrival of NATO forces. This resulted inan incident during which NATO Supreme Commander Wesley Clark's wish to forcibly block the runways with NATO vehicles, to prevent any Russian reinforcement, was refused by KFOR commanderGeneral Mike Jackson.[226]
In 2010,James Blunt described in an interview how his unit was given the assignment of securing Pristina during the advance of the 30,000-strong peacekeeping force and how theRussian Army had moved in and taken control of the city's airport before his unit's arrival. Blunt shared a part in the difficult task of addressing the potentially violent international incident. According to Blunt's account there was a stand-off with the Russians, and NATO Supreme Commander Clark gave provisional orders to over-power them. Whilst these were questioned by Blunt, they were rejected by General Jackson, with the now famous line, "I'm not having my soldiers responsible for startingWorld War III."[227]
In June 2000, arms trading relations between Russia and Yugoslavia were exposed, which led to retaliation and bombings of Russian checkpoints and area police stations.Outpost Gunner was established on a high point in the Preševo Valley by Echo Battery 1/161 Field Artillery in an attempt to monitor and assist with peacekeeping efforts in the Russian Sector. Operating under the support of ⅔ Field Artillery, 1st Armored Division, the Battery was able to successfully deploy and continuously operate a Firefinder Radar system, which allowed the NATO forces to keep a closer watch on activities in the Sector and the Preševo Valley. Eventually a deal was struck whereby Russian forces operated as a unit of KFOR but not under the NATO command structure.[228]
Reaction to the war
Russian Minister of Defense MarshalIgor Sergeyev (seated left) and Secretary of DefenseWilliam S. Cohen (seated center) sign the agreed principles which are the basis for Russian participation in the international peacekeeping force (KFOR) in Kosovo at the Presidential Place in Helsinki, Finland, on June 18, 1999. Observing the signing are Russian Minister of Foreign AffairsIgor Ivanov (3rd from right), Finnish PresidentMartti Ahtisaari (2nd from right) and Secretary of StateMadeleine Albright (right).
Because of the country's restrictive media laws, the Yugoslav media carried little coverage of events in Kosovo, and the attitude of other countries to the humanitarian disaster that was occurring there. Thus, few members of the Yugoslav public expected NATO intervention, instead thinking that a diplomatic agreement would be reached.[229]
Support for the war
Support for the Kosovan War and, in particular, thelegitimacy of NATO's bombing campaign came from a variety of sources. In a 2009 article, David Clark claimed "Every member of NATO, every EU country, and most of Yugoslavia's neighbours, supported military action."[230] Statements from the leaders ofUnited States,Czech Republic andUnited Kingdom, respectively, described the war as one "upholding our values, protecting our interests, and advancing the cause of peace",[231] "the first war for values"[230] and one "to avert what would otherwise be a humanitarian disaster inKosovo."[232] Others included the then UN Secretary GeneralKofi Annan who was reported by some sources as acknowledging that the NATO action was legitimate[233] who emphasised that there were times when the use of force was legitimate in the pursuit of peace[234] though Annan stressed that the "[UN Security] Council should have been involved in any decision to use force."[234] The distinction between the legality and legitimacy of the intervention was further highlighted in two separate reports. One was conducted by theIndependent International Commission on Kosovo, entitledThe Kosovo Report,[235] which found that:
[Yugoslav] forces were engaged in a well-planned campaign of terror and expulsion of the Kosovar Albanians. This campaign is most frequently described as one of "ethnic cleansing," intended to drive many, if not all, Kosovar Albanians from Kosovo, destroy the foundations of their society, and prevent them from returning.
It concluded that "the NATO military intervention was illegal but legitimate",[236] The second report was published by the NATO Office of Information and Press[237] which reported that, "the human rights violations committed on a large scale in Kosovo provide an incontestable ground with reference to the humanitarian aspect of NATO's intervention."[238] Some critics note that NATO did not have the backing of theUnited Nations Security Council meant that its intervention had no legal basis, but according to some legal scholars, "there are nonetheless certain bases for that action that are not legal, but justified."[233]
Kosovo Albanian refugees in 1999
Aside from politicians and diplomats, commentators and intellectuals also supported the war.Michael Ignatieff called NATOs intervention a "morally justifiable response to ethnic cleansing and the resulting flood of refugees, and not the cause of the flood of refugees"[239] whileChristopher Hitchens said NATO intervened only, "when Serbian forces had resorted to mass deportation and full-dress ethnic 'cleansing.'"[240] Writing inThe Nation,Richard A. Falk wrote that, "the NATO campaign achieved the removal of Yugoslav military forces from Kosovo and, even more significant, the departure of the dreaded Serbian paramilitary units and police"[241] while an article inThe Guardian wrote that forMary Kaldor, Kosovo represented a laboratory on her thinking for human security, humanitarian intervention and international peacekeeping, the latter two which she defined as, "a genuine belief in the equality of all human beings; and this entails a readiness to risk lives of peacekeeping troops to save the lives of others where this is necessary."[242] Reports stated there had been no peace between Albanians and Serbs, citing the deaths of 1,500 Albanians and displacement of 270,000 prior to NATO intervention.[230]
Criticism of the case for war
The NATO intervention has been seen as a political diversionary tactic, coming as it did on the heels of theMonica Lewinsky scandal, pointing to the fact that coverage of the bombing directly replaced coverage of the scandal in US news cycles.[243]Herbert Foerstel points out that before the bombing, rather than there being an unusually bloody conflict, the KLA was not engaged in a widespread war against Yugoslav forces and the death toll among all concerned (including ethnic Albanians) skyrocketed following NATO intervention.[243] In a post-war report released by theOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the organization also noted "the pattern of the expulsions and the vast increase in lootings, killings, rape, kidnappings and pillage once the NATO air war began on March 24".[244]
Noam Chomsky argues that the bombing was "not undertaken in “response” to ethnic cleansing and to “reverse” it, as leaders alleged", but rather that "with full awareness of the likely consequences, Clinton and Blair decided in favor of a war that led to a radical escalation of ethnic cleansing along with other deleterious effects."[245] Chomsky also notes, similarly to Foerstel, that the number of casualties in the war before the bombing constituted a small number. He concludes that it is impossible to justify the bombing, as there "could be no reasonable expectation of massive ethnic cleansing and violence".[246] According to Chomsky, theRačak massacre that was considered a turning point for NATO amounted to 45 deaths, a very low number compared to the atrocities committed from both sides after the bombing. According to theInternational Herald Tribune, "U.S. intelligence reported … that the Kosovo rebels intended to draw NATO into its fight for independence by provoking Serbian forces into further atrocities."[247]
U.S. President Clinton, his administration and NATO governments were accused of inflating the number of Kosovo Albanians killed by state forces.[248] During the NATO bombing campaign, the then Secretary of Defense,William Cohen claimed that 100,000 Kosovo Albanian men of military age were missing, possibly murdered.[249] The conservative[250] media watchdog groupAccuracy in Media charged the alliance with distorting the situation in Kosovo and lying about the number of civilian deaths in order to justify U.S. involvement in the conflict.[251]
After the bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Chinese PresidentJiang Zemin said that the US was using its economic and military superiority to aggressively expand its influence and interfere in the internal affairs of other countries. Chinese leaders called the NATO campaign a dangerous precedent of naked aggression, a new form of colonialism, and an aggressive war groundless in morality or law. It was seen as part of a plot by the US to destroy Yugoslavia, expand eastward and control all of Europe.[252]
TheUnited Nations Charter does not allow military interventions in other sovereign countries with few exceptions which, in general, need to be decided upon by the United Nations Security Council; this legal enjoinment has proved controversial with many[233][235][236] legal scholars who argue that though the Kosovo War was illegal, it was still legitimate. The issue was brought before the UN Security Council by Russia, in a draft resolution which,inter alia, would affirm "that such unilateral use of force constitutes a flagrant violation of the United Nations Charter". China, Namibia, and Russia voted for the resolution, the other members against, thus it failed to pass.[253]
The war inflicted many casualties. Already by March 1999, an estimated 1,500–2,000 civilians and combatants were dead.[254] However, estimates showed that prior to the bombing campaign on 24 March 1999, approximately 1,800 civilians had been killed in the Kosovo war, mostly Albanians but also Serbs and that there had been no evidence of genocide or ethnic cleansing.[255] By November 1999, 2,108 victims had been exhumed from the province with a total approaching 3,000 expected, but it was unclear how many were civilians and combatants, while the number was also far from the 10,000 minimum civilian death figure cited by Western officials.[256] Final estimates of the casualties are still unavailable for either side.
Perhaps the most controversial deliberate attack of the war was that made against the headquarters ofRTS, Serbian public radio and television, on 23 April 1999, which killed at least fourteen people.[257]
Privately, NATO European members were divided about the aims and necessity of the war.[258] Most European allies did not trust the motives of Kosovan Albanians and according to NATO General Wesley Clark, "There was a sense among some that NATO was fighting on the wrong side" in a war between Christians and Muslims.[258]
Democratic League of Kosovo and FARK
TheDemocratic League of Kosovo (DLK) led byIbrahim Rugova had been the leading political entity in Kosovo since its creation in 1989. Its parallel government in exile was led byBujar Bukoshi, and its Minister of Defence until 1998 was the former Yugoslav colonel Ahmet Krasniqi.[259] DLK politicians opposed the armed conflict and were not ready to accept KLA as a political factor in the region and tried to persuade the population not to support it.[260] At one point Rugova even claimed that it was set up by Serbian intelligence as an excuse to invade,[261] or to discredit DLK itself.[262] Nevertheless, the support for KLA even within DLK membership and specifically in the diaspora grew, together with the dissatisfaction with and antagonism toward DLK.[263] KLA initial personnel were members or former members of the DLK.[262][264] With the changes of the international stance towards KLA and its recognition as a factor in the conflict, DLK's position also shifted. TheArmed Forces of the Republic of Kosovo, known as FARK, were established in order to place DLK as a military factor in addition to a political one. A parallel paramilitary structure such as FARK was not received well by the KLA.
On 21 September 1998 Ahmet Krasniqi was shot inTirana.[265] Those responsible were not found, although several theories emerged. TheDemocratic Party of Albania and its leaderSali Berisha, strong supporters of DLK and FARK, accusedSHIK and the Albanian government, which was supporting the KLA,[266] of being responsible.[265] FARK was never a determining factor in the war and was not involved in any battles. It did not number more than few hundred men, and it did not show any commitment to fighting the Serbs, accepting a broader autonomy as a solution rather than independence.[265] Some of the FARK officers were incorporated later under the KLA umbrella.[267] Besides FARK, DLK would also politically and diplomatically oppose KLA and their methods. In a meeting with US President Clinton on 29 May 1999,[268] Rugova, accompanied byFehmi Agani, Bukoshi, andVeton Surroi, accused KLA of being a left-wing ideology bearer, and some of its leaders as being "nostalgic to known communist figures, such asEnver Hoxha",[269] referring to thePeople's Movement of Kosovo (LPK) nucleus of KLA,[270] an old underground rival with strongleft-wing orientation.[271][272]
Rugova was present at the negotiations held inRambouillet and supported theRambouillet Agreement since the first round, but without any influence.[273] Following the ethnic cleansing of the Albanian population, there was close to a total Albanian support for the NATO campaign, including the DLK side. Surprisingly, Ibrahim Rugova showed up in Belgrade as a guest of Milosevic. At a joint TV appearance on 1 April,[274] ending in a Rugova-Milosevic handshake, Rugova asked for a peaceful solution and the bombings to stop.[275][276] In the same conference, Millosevic presented his proposal for Kosovo as part of a three-unit federal Yugoslavian state. Rugova's presence in Belgrade scattered another set of accusations from KLA and its supporters. Besides being 'passive' and 'too peaceful', Rugova and DLK were accused as 'traitors'.[277] Following Rugova's passage to Italy on 5 May, Rugova claimed that he had been under duress and any "agreement" with Milosovic had no meaning.[274] The general opinion expected the DLK structures and its leader to vanish from the political scene of Kosovo after the Yugoslav withdrawal. Rugova himself stayed out of Kosovo for several weeks, while the prime-minister Bukoshi and other leading membership returned. With only a fraction of Kosovo Albanians participating actively in the war, the support for DLK increased again as a way of opposing the arrogance of many KLA leaders who openly engaged in controlling the economical and political life within the vacuum created right before the deployment of theUnited Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK).[278] In the October 2000 local elections, DLK was confirmed as the leading political party.[279]
The feud between KLA and DLK continued in the post-war Kosovo. Many political activists of DLK were assassinated and the perpetrators not found, includingXhemajl Mustafa, Rugova's most trusted aide.[279]
Casualties
Civilian losses
In June 2000, theRed Cross reported that 3,368 civilians (mainly Kosovar Albanians, but with several hundred Serbs, and Roma) were still missing, nearly one year after the conflict, most of whom it concluded had to be 'presumed dead'.[280]
A study by researchers from theCenters for Disease Control and Prevention inAtlanta, Georgia published in 2000 in medical journalthe Lancet estimated that "12,000 deaths in the total population" could be attributed to war.[281] This number was achieved by surveying 1,197 households from February 1998 through June 1999. 67 out of the 105 deaths reported in the sample population were attributed to war-relatedtrauma, which extrapolates to be 12,000 deaths if the same war-related mortality rate is applied to Kosovo's total population. The highest mortality rates were in men between 15 and 49 (5,421 victims of war) as well as for men over 50 (5,176 victims). For persons younger than 15, the estimates were 160 victims for males and 200 for females.[282] For women between 15 and 49 the estimate is that there were 510 victims; older than 50 years the estimate is 541 victims. The authors stated that it was not "possible to differentiate completely between civilian and military casualties".
In the 2008 joint study by theHumanitarian Law Centre (an NGO from Serbia and Kosovo), The International Commission on Missing Persons, and the Missing Person Commission of Serbia made a name-by-name list of war and post-war victims. According to the updated 2015 Kosovo Memory Book, 13,535 people were killed or missing due to the Kosovo conflict, from 1 January 1998 up until December 2000. Of these, 10,812 were Albanians, 2,197 Serbs and 526 Roma, Bosniaks, Montenegrins and others. 10,317 civilians were killed or went missing, of whom 8,676 were Albanians, 1,196 Serbs and 445 Roma and others. The remaining 3,218 dead or missing were combatants, including 2,131 members of the KLA and FARK, 1,084 members of Serbian forces and 3 members of KFOR.[34] As of 2019, the book had been updated to a total of 13,548.[34] In August 2017, theUN High Commissioner for Human Rights reported that between 1998 and 1999, more than 6,000 people had gone missing in Kosovo, and that 1,658 remained missing, with neither the person nor the body having, at that time, been found.[283]
Railway bridge and monument to civilian victims of a NATO airstrike on a passenger train in 1999, in which 12 to 16 civilian passengers died
Yugoslavia claimed that NATO attacks caused between 1,200 and 5,700 civilian casualties. NATO's Secretary General,Lord Robertson, wrote after the war that "the actual toll in human lives will never be precisely known" but he then offered the figures found in a report byHuman Rights Watch as a reasonable estimate. This report counted between 488 and 527 civilian deaths (90 to 150 of them killed from cluster bomb use) in 90 separate incidents, the worst of which were the 87 Albanian refugees who perished at the hands of NATO bombs, near Koriša.[284]
Various estimates of the number of killings attributed to Yugoslav forces have been announced through the years. An estimated 800,000 Kosovo Albanians fled and an estimated 7,000 to 9,000 were killed, according toThe New York Times.[285] The estimate of 10,000 deaths is used by theUS Department of State, which cited human rights abuses as its main justification for attacking Yugoslavia.[286]
In August 2000, theICTY announced that it had exhumed 2,788 bodies in Kosovo, but declined to say how many were thought to be victims of war crimes.[289] KFOR sources told Agence France Presse that of the 2,150 bodies[290] that had been discovered up until July 1999, about 850 were thought to be victims of war crimes.
In an attempt to conceal the corpses of the victims, Yugoslav forces transported the bodies of murdered Albanians deep inside Serbia and buried them in mass graves.[291] According to HLC, many of the bodies were taken to the Mačkatica Aluminium Complex nearSurdulica and the Copper Mining And Smelting Complex inBor, where they were incinerated. There are reports that some bodies of Albanian victims were also burned in the Feronikli plant inGlogovac.[292][293]
Known mass graves:
In 2001, 800 still unidentified bodies were found in pits on a police training ground just outside Belgrade and in eastern Serbia.
At least 700 bodies were uncovered in a mass grave located within a special anti-terrorist police unit's compound in the Belgrade suburb of Batajnica.
77 bodies were found in the eastern Serbian town of Petrovo Selo.
50 bodies were uncovered near the western Serbian town of Peručac.[294]
A mass grave believed to contain 250 bodies of Albanians killed in the war has been found under a car park in Rudnica nearRaška.[295][296]
At least 2 bodies, as well as part of the remains of a third body previously found in Rudnica have been found near a mine in the village of Kizevak in southern Serbia. The operation of recovering the bodies is still ongoing.[297]
Civilians killed by KLA forces
The KLA abducted and killed Serbian, Roma, and moderate Albanian civilians during and after the war.[298] The exact number of civilians killed by the KLA is not known, though estimates conducted in the initial post-war months listed several hundreds[299][300] with the targeting of non-Albanians intensifying in the immediate aftermath of KFOR deployment.[87] Although more than 2,500 non-Albanians are believed to have been killed in the period between 1 January 1998 and 31 December 2000,[34] it is not known how many of them were killed by the KLA or affiliated groups.[better source needed]
Military casualties on theNATO side were light. According to official reports, the alliance suffered no fatalities as a direct result of combat operations. In the early hours of 5 May, a US militaryAH-64 Apache helicopter crashed[301] approximately 45 miles (72 km), according toCNN,[302] or 40 miles (64 km), according to theBBC,[303] northeast ofTirana, Albania's capital, very close to the border between Kosovo and Albania.[301] The two US pilots of the helicopter, ArmyChief Warrant Officers David Gibbs and Kevin L. Reichert, died in that crash. According to NATO statements, they were the only NATO fatalities during the war. However, British radio intercepts of Serbian military communications, said that severalFrench foreign intelligence officers had been killed alongside KLA fighters in a Serbian ambush.[304]
There were other casualties after the war, mostly due to land mines. During the war, the alliance reported the loss of the firstUSstealth aeroplane (anF-117 Nighthawk) evershot down by enemy fire.[305] Furthermore, anF-16 fighter was lost nearŠabac and 32unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) from different nations were lost.[306] The wreckages of downed UAVs were shown onSerbian television during the war. Some US sources claim a second F-117A was also heavily damaged, and although it made it back to its base, it never flew again.[307][308]A-10 Thunderbolts have been reported as losses, with two shot down[38] and another two damaged.[38] Three US soldiers riding aHumvee in a routine patrol were captured by Yugoslav special forces across the Macedonian border.[309]
Yugoslav military losses
Destroyed tank near Prizren
At first, NATO claimed to have killed 10,000 Yugoslav troops, while Yugoslavia claimed only 500 had been killed; the NATO investigative teams later corrected it to a few hundred Yugoslav troops killed by air strikes.[310] In 2001, the Yugoslav authorities claimed 462 soldiers were killed and 299 wounded by NATO airstrikes.[311] Later, in 2013, Serbia claimed that 1,008 Yugoslav soldiers and policemen had been killed by NATO bombing.[42] In early June 1999, NATO claimed that 5,000 Yugoslav servicemen had been killed and 10,000 had been wounded during the NATO air campaign.[44][45][312][313][314] NATO has since[when?] revised this estimate to 1,200 Yugoslav soldiers and policemen killed.[46]
Wreckage of YugoslavMiG-29 jet fighter shot down on 27 March 1999, outside the town ofUgljevik, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Of military equipment, NATO destroyed around 50Yugoslav Air Force aircraft including 6MiG-29s destroyed inair-to-air combat. A number ofG-4 Super Galebs were destroyed in their hardened aircraft shelter bybunker-busting bombs which started a fire which spread quickly because the shelter doors were not closed. At the end of war, NATO officially claimed that they had destroyed 93 Yugoslav tanks. Yugoslavia admitted a total of 3 destroyed tanks. The latter figure was verified by European inspectors when Yugoslavia rejoined the Dayton accords, by noting the difference between the number of tanks then and at the last inspection in 1995.[citation needed] NATO claimed that the Yugoslav army lost 93 tanks (M-84's andT-55's), 132 APCs, and 52 artillery pieces.[315]Newsweek, the second-largest news weekly magazine in the U.S., gained access to a suppressedUS Air Force report that claimed the real numbers were "3 tanks, not 120; 18 armored personnel carriers, not 220; 20 artillery pieces, not 450".[315][316] Another US Air Force report gives a figure of 14 tanks destroyed.[47] Most of the targets hit in Kosovo were decoys, such as tanks made out of plastic sheets with telegraph poles for gun barrels, or old World War II–era tanks which were not functional. Anti-aircraft defences were preserved by the simple expedient of not turning them on, preventing NATO aircraft from detecting them, but forcing them to keep above a ceiling of 15,000 feet (4,600 metres), making accurate bombing much more difficult. Towards the end of the war, it was claimed that carpet bombing byB-52 aircraft had caused huge casualties among Yugoslav troops stationed along the Kosovo–Albania border. Careful searching by NATO investigators found no evidence of any such large-scale casualties.
The most significant loss for theYugoslav Army was the damaged and destroyed infrastructure. Almost all military air bases and airfields (Batajnica,Lađevci,Slatina,Golubovci andĐakovica) and other military buildings and facilities were badly damaged or destroyed. Unlike the units and their equipment, military buildings could not be camouflaged. thus, defence industry and military technical overhaul facilities were also seriously damaged (Utva,Zastava Arms factory, Moma Stanojlović air force overhaul centre, technical overhaul centres inČačak andKragujevac). In an effort to weaken the Yugoslav Army, NATO targeted several important civilian facilities (thePančevo oil refinery,[317]Novi Sad oil refinery, bridges, TV antennas, railroads, etc.)
KLA losses
Around 1,500 Kosovo Liberation Army soldiers were killed, according to KLA's own estimates.[33]HLC registered 2,131 KLA and FARK insurgents killed in its comprehensive database.[34]
The Yugoslav and Serb forces caused the displacement of between 1.2 million[85] to 1.45 million Kosovo Albanians.[86] After the end of the war in June 1999, numerous Albanianrefugees started returning home from neighboring countries. By November 1999, according to theUN High Commissioner for Refugees, 848,100 out of 1,108,913 had returned.[318][self-published source?]
According to the 1991 Yugoslavia Census, of the nearly 2 million population of Kosovo in 1991, 194,190 wereSerbs, 45,745 wereRomani and 20,356 wereMontenegrins.[319] According to theHuman Rights Watch, 200,000 Serbs and thousands of Roma fled from Kosovo during and after the war.[61] Homes of minorities were burned and Orthodox churches and monasteries were destroyed.[320] The YugoslavRed Cross had also registered 247,391 mostly Serbian refugees by 26 November.[321] More than 164,000 Serbs left Kosovo during the seven weeks which followed Yugoslav and Serb forces' withdrawal from, and the NATO-led Kosovo Force (KFOR) entering Kosovo.[322]
Further inter-ethnic violence took place in2000, and2004.
For thegovernment of Serbia, cooperation with theInternational Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia is "still regarded as a distressing obligation, the necessary price for joining theEuropean Union".[323] Religious objects were damaged or destroyed. Of the 498 mosques in Kosovo that were in active use, theInternational Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) documented that 225 mosques sustained damage or destruction by the Yugoslav Serb army.[324] In all, eighteen months of the Yugoslav Serb counterinsurgency campaign between 1998 and 1999 within Kosovo resulted in 225 or a third out of a total of 600 mosques being damaged, vandalised, or destroyed.[325][326] During the war, Islamic architectural heritage posed for Yugoslav Serb paramilitary and military forces as Albanian patrimony, with destruction of non-Serbian architectural heritage being a methodical and planned component ofethnic cleansing in Kosovo.[326][327]
Widespread rape and sexual violence by the Serbian army, police and paramilitaries occurred during the conflict and the majority of victims were Kosovo Albanian women,[328][329] numbering an estimated 20,000.[330] The crimes of rape by the Serb military, paramilitary and police amounted to crimes against humanity and a war crime of torture.[328]
On 27 April 1999, amass execution of at least 377 Kosovo Albanian civilians, of whom 36 were under 18 years old, was committed by Serbian police andYugoslav Army forces in the village of Meja near the town ofGjakova. It followed an operation which began after the killing of six Serbian policemen by theKosovo Liberation Army (KLA). The victims were pulled from refugee convoys at a checkpoint in Meja and their families were ordered to proceed toAlbania. Men and boys were separated and then executed by the road.[331] It was one of the largest massacres in the Kosovo War.[332]
Vlastimir Đorđević, former Assistant Minister of the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs (MUP) and Chief of the Public Security Department (RJB) of the MUP, was sentenced to 18 years in prison.[335]
Slobodan Milošević died before a verdict was reached.
The ICTY found that:
...FRY and Serbian forces use[d] violence and terror to force a significant number of Kosovo Albanians from their homes and across the borders, in order for the state authorities to maintain control over Kosovo ... This campaign was conducted byarmy andInterior Ministrypolice forces (MUP) under the control of FRY and Serbian authorities, who were responsible for mass expulsions of Kosovo Albanian civilians from their homes, as well as incidents of killings,sexual assault, and theintentional destruction ofmosques.[336]
In 2008,Carla Del Ponte published a book in which she alleged that, after the end of the war in 1999, Kosovo Albanians were smuggling organs of between 100 and 300 Serbs and other minorities from the province to Albania.[338]
In March 2005, a UN tribunal indicted Kosovo Prime MinisterRamush Haradinaj for war crimes against the Serbs. On 8 March, he tendered his resignation. Haradinaj, an ethnic Albanian, was a former commander who led units of the Kosovo Liberation Army and was appointed prime minister after winning an election of 72 votes to three in the Kosovo's Parliament in December 2004. Haradinaj was acquitted on all counts along with fellow KLA veterans Idriz Balaj and Lahi Brahimaj. The Office of the Prosecutor appealed their acquittals, resulting in the ICTY ordering a partial retrial. On 29 November 2012 all three were acquitted for the second time on all charges.[339] The trials were rife with accusations of witness intimidation, as media outlets from several different countries wrote that as many as nineteen people who were supposed to be witnesses in the trial against Haradinaj were murdered (the ICTY disputed these reports).[340]
According toHuman Rights Watch (HRW), "800 non-Albanian civilians were kidnapped and murdered from 1998 to 1999". After the war, "479 people have gone missing... most of them Serbs".[341] HRW notes that "the intent behind many of the killings and abductions that have occurred in the province since June 1999 appears to be the expulsion of Kosovo's Serb and Roma population rather than a desire for revenge alone. In numerous cases, direct and systematic efforts were made to force Serbs and Roma to leave their homes."[342] Some 200,000 Serbs and Roma fled Kosovo following the withdrawal of Yugoslav forces.[343]
In April 2014, theAssembly of Kosovo considered and approved the establishment of aspecial court to try cases involving crimes and other serious abuses committed in 1999–2000 by members of the KLA.[344] Reports of abuses and war crimes committed by the KLA during and after the conflict include massacres of civilians, prison camps, burning and looting of homes and destruction of medieval churches and monuments.[345]
Carla Del Ponte said that the US for political reasons, did not want theICTY to scrutinise war crimes committed by the KLA. According to her,Madeleine Albright who was the Secretary of State at the time told her to proceed slowly with the investigation ofRamush Haradinaj to avoid unrest in Kosovo.[346]
The Yugoslav government and a number of international pressure groups (e.g.,Amnesty International) claimed that NATO had carried out war crimes during the conflict, notably the bombing of the Serbian TV headquarters in Belgrade on 23 April 1999, where 16 people were killed and 16 more were injured. Sian Jones of Amnesty stated, "The bombing of the headquarters of Serbian state radio and television was a deliberate attack on a civilian object and as such constitutes a war crime".[347] A report conducted by theICTY entitledFinal Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing Campaign Against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia concluded that, "Insofar as the attack actually was aimed at disrupting the communications network, it was legally acceptable" and that, "NATO's targeting of theRTS building for propaganda purposes was an incidental (albeit complementary) aim of its primary goal of disabling the Serbian military command and control system and to destroy the nerve system and apparatus that keeps Milosević in power."[208] In regards to civilian casualties, it further stated that though they were, "unfortunately high, they do not appear to be clearly disproportionate."[208]
International reaction to NATO intervention
Africa
–Egypt supported NATO intervention in Kosovo and withdrew its ambassador from Belgrade.[348]
– Libyan Jamahiriya leader,Muammar Gaddafi opposed the campaign and called on world leaders to support Yugoslavia's 'legitimate right to defend its freedoms and territorial integrity against a possible aggression.'[349]
–China deeply condemned the bombing, saying it was an act of aggression against theYugoslav people, especially when NATObombed its embassy in Belgrade on 7 May 1999, riots and mass demonstrations against the governments of the United States and Great Britain were reported against both the attack and the operation overall.[351]Jiang Zemin, the President of the country at the time, called 'once more' for an immediate halt to the airstrikes and demanded peaceful negotiations.[349]
–India condemned the bombing.[350] The Indian foreign ministry also stated that it 'urged all military actions to be brought to a halt' and that 'FR Yugoslavia be enabled to resolve its internal issues internally.'[349]
–Israel did not support the 1999NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.[352]Ariel Sharon criticised NATO's bombing as an act of "brutal interventionism".[353] It was suggested that Sharon may have supported the Yugoslav position because of the Serbian population's history of saving Jews during theHolocaust.[354]
–Jordan supported NATO intervention in Kosovo and withdrew its ambassador from Belgrade.[348]
–Japan's PMKeizō Obuchi advocated the bombing, stating that Yugoslavia had an 'uncompromising attitude.'[350] Japan's foreign ministerMasahiko Kōmura said that, 'Japan understands NATO's use of force as measures that had to be taken to prevent humanitarian catastrophe.'[349]
–Malaysia supported the bombing, stating that it 'was necessary to prevent genocide in Kosovo.'[350]
–United Arab Emirates supported NATO intervention in Kosovo.[355] The UAE population gave financial aid, and set up and ran a refugee camp and built an airstrip for incoming relief supplies at Kukës in Northern Albania.[355]
– Albania strongly supported the bombing campaign. This resulted in the breaking of diplomatic ties between Albania and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, who accused the Albanian government of harbouring KLA insurgents and supplying them with weapons.[356]
–Turkey, a NATO member, supported and was involved in the bombing campaign though it expressed hesitation about a ground offensive.[357] The Turkish government stressed that NATO's involvement was not about undermining Yugoslav territorial integrity, but about reversing the genocidal policies of the Milošević government.[357] The Turkish population, as a result of historical, cultural, and religious ties to the Balkans felt a responsibility to assist Kosovo Albanians by supporting their government's position.[357]
– In France, the bulk of the population supported the action but factions on the far left and far right opposed it.[359]
–Slobodan Milošević, the president of theFederal Republic of Yugoslavia called the bombings, an 'unlawful act of terrorism' and the 'key to colonize Yugoslavia'. TheYugoslav population also strongly opposed the bombing. Milošević stated that, 'the only correct decision that could have been made was the one to reject foreign troops on our territory.'[360] The Yugoslavs who opposed Milošević also opposed the bombing, saying that it 'supports Milošević rather than attacking him.'[361]
– ChancellorGerhard Schroeder newly elected government supported the NATO campaign; German public opinion was not prepared for a prolonged campaign.[258]
– The bombing was met with mixed reactions in Italy. Following former prime ministerRomano Prodi's decision to allow coalition forces to use Italian airbases and military infrastructures,Massimo D'Alema's centre-left government authorised the country's participation in the air campaign.[362] The bombing was also supported bySilvio Berlusconi and the centre-right opposition.[363] Domestic opposition to the NATO bombing campaign against Serbia was strong.[258]
– Russia strongly condemned the campaign.PresidentBoris Yeltsin stated that, 'Russia is deeply upset by NATO's military action against sovereign Yugoslavia, which is nothing more than open aggression.'[349] They also condemnedNATO at theUnited Nations saying that NATO air strikes on Serbia were 'an illegal action.'[364] Some Russians volunteered to go to Kosovo, not only to fight theKLA, but also to opposeNATO.[365]
– As a contributor to the bombing, the United Kingdom strongly supported the bombing campaign, as did a majority of theBritish population.[366]
– The Polish government sanctioned NATO's activities but Poland did not participate in the operation[367] There were demonstrations inWarsaw against the bombing.[368]
– Bulgaria allowed its airspace to be used by NATO aircraft for attacks.[369] DespiteBulgaria's ambitions of joining bothNATO and theEuropean Union, the leftist opposition organised street protests in Sofia over theNATO bombing of Yugoslavia, the public was reportedly deeply divided because of sympathy for their fellow Slavs and Christian Orthodox Serb neighbours but also a desire to join the European Union and NATO.[370] Several NATO missiles and aircraft strayed off course into Bulgaria.[371]
– Romania allowed NATO planes to use Romanian airspace to strike targets in Serbia. Supporting NATO during the Yugoslav Wars got Romania's position as anofficial NATO member in2004. However, a overwhelmingy majority of Romanians continued showing support to their historical Orthodox Christian ally Serbia, most Romanian citizens strongly opposed the NATO bombing campaign.[372]
Oceania
– Australia supported the campaign. Prime MinisterJohn Howard stated that, "history has told us that if you sit by and do nothing, you pay a much greater price later on."[373]
United Nations
– TheUnited Nations had mixed reactions to the bombing, which was carried out without its authorisation.[374]Kofi Annan, the UN Secretary-General said, "In spite of all the efforts made by the international community, the Yugoslav authorities have persisted in their rejection of a political settlement … it is indeed tragic that diplomacy has failed, but there are times when the use of force is legitimate in the pursuit of peace"[349] adding that "the [UN Security] Council should be involved in any decision to resort to the use of force."[375]
The Kosovo War had a number of important consequences in terms of the military and political outcome. The status of Kosovo remains unresolved; international negotiations began in 2006 to determine Kosovo's level of autonomy as envisaged underUN Security Council Resolution 1244, but efforts failed. The province is administered by the United Nations despite itsunilateral declaration of independence on 17 February 2008.
Seized uniform and equipment of US soldiers 1999 in Kosovo War
The UN-backed talks, led by UN Special EnvoyMartti Ahtisaari, had begun in February 2006. Whilst progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself.[376] In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft UN Security Council Resolution which proposes "supervised independence" for the province, which is in contrary to UN Security Council Resolution 1244. By July 2007, the draft resolution, which was backed by the United States, United Kingdom, and other European members of theSecurity Council, had been rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty.[377] Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one offive permanent members, stated that it would not support any resolution which is not acceptable to both Belgrade and Priština.[378]
The campaign exposed significant weaknesses in the US arsenal, which were later addressed for theAfghanistan andIraq campaigns.Apache attack helicopters andAC-130 Spectre gunships were brought up to the front lines but were never used after two Apaches crashed during training in the Albanian mountains. Stocks of many precision missiles were reduced to critically low levels. For combat aircraft, continuous operations resulted in skipped maintenance schedules, and many aircraft were withdrawn from service awaiting spare parts and service.[379] Also, many of the precision-guided weapons proved unable to cope with Balkan weather, as the clouds blocked the laser guidance beams. This was resolved by retrofitting bombs withGlobal Positioning System satellite guidance devices that are immune to bad weather. Althoughpilotless surveillance aircraft were extensively used, often attack aircraft could not be brought to the scene quickly enough to hit targets of opportunity. This led missiles being fitted to Predator drones in Afghanistan, reducing the "sensor to shooter" time to virtually zero.
Kosovo also showed that some low-tech tactics could reduce the impact of a high-tech force such as NATO; the Milošević government cooperated withSaddam Hussein's Ba'athist regime inIraq, passing on many of the lessons learned in theGulf War.[380] The Yugoslav army had long expected to need to resist a much stronger enemy, eitherSoviet or NATO, during theCold War and had developed tactics of deception and concealment in response. These would have been unlikely to have resisted a full-scale invasion for long, but were probably used to mislead overflying aircraft and satellites. Among the tactics used were:
USstealth aeroplanes were tracked withradars operating on long wavelengths. If stealth jets got wet or opened their bomb bay doors, they would become visible on the radar screens. Thedowning of an F-117 Nighthawk by a missile was possibly spotted in this way.[381]
Dummy targets such as fake bridges, airfields and decoy aeroplanes and tanks were used extensively. Tanks were made using old tires, plastic sheeting and logs, and sand cans and fuel set alight to mimic heat missions. Serbia claims they fooled NATO pilots into bombing hundreds of decoys, though General Clark's survey found that in Operation: Allied Force, NATO airmen hit just 25 decoys – an insignificant percentage of the 974 validated hits.[382]NATO sources claim that this was due to operating procedures, which oblige troops, in this case aircraft, to engage any and all targets, however unlikely they may be. The targets needed only to look real to be shot at when detected. NATO claimed that the Yugoslav air force was devastated: "Official data show that the Yugoslav army in Kosovo lost 26 percent of its tanks, 34 percent of its APCs, and 47 percent of the artillery to the air campaign."[382]
Military decorations
As a result of the Kosovo War, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization created a second NATO medal, theNATO Medal for Kosovo Service, aninternational military decoration. Shortly thereafter, NATO created the Non-Article 5 Medal for Balkans service to combine both Yugoslavian and Kosovo operations into one service medal.[383]
TheKosovo Campaign Medal (KCM) is a military award of theUnited States Armed Forces established by Executive Order 13154 of President Bill Clinton on 3 May 2000. The medal recognises military service performed in Kosovo from 24 March 1999 through 31 December 2013.
Weaponry and vehicles used
A variety of weapons were used by the Yugoslav security forces and the Kosovo Liberation Army, NATO only operated aircraft and naval units during the conflict.
Yugoslav security forces
The weapons used by Yugoslav government were mostly Yugoslav made, while almost all of their AA units were Soviet made.
^Serbia claims that 1,008 Yugoslav soldiers and policemen were killed by NATO bombing.[42][43] NATO initially claimed that 5,000 Yugoslav servicemen had been killed and 10,000 had been wounded during the NATO air campaign.[44][45] NATO has since revised this estimation to 1,200 Yugoslav soldiers and policemen killed.[46] According to the Humanitarian Law Center, the NATO air campaign killed 276 member of Serbian police and military forces.[34]
^abCoopersmith, Jonathan; Launius, Roger D. (2003).Taking Off: A Century of Manned Flight. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 54.ISBN978-1-56347-610-5.
^"Ein Berliner, ein Dresdener und ein Däne erzählen, wie sie als Freiwillige zu den albanischen Rebellen der UCK kamen: Aus dem Schützenverein ins Kosovo".Berliner Zeitung (in German). 11 July 1999. Retrieved3 April 2024.Am Nachmittag des 6. April stößt seine Einheit in einem Wäldchen nahe Pristina auf eine Gruppe von Kämpfern des berüchtigten Serbenführers Arkan. Erst nach einem langen, heftigen Schußwechsel ziehen sich Arkans Soldaten zurück. Sie haben zwanzig Männer verloren. Sascha sagt, die Gefallenen seien Russen gewesen. Auch einer der UCK-Soldaten stirbt in diesem Kampf. (German) On the afternoon of April 6, his unit encountered a group of fighters belonging to the notorious Serb leader Arkan in a forest near Pristina. Only after a long, fierce exchange of fire do Arkan's soldiers retreat. They lost twenty men. Sascha says the fallen were Russians. One of the KLA soldiers also dies in this fight. (English)
^Haines, Steven (May 2009). "The Influence of Operation Allied Force on the Development of the jus ad bellum".International Affairs.85 (3). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press:477–490.doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2009.00809.x.ISSN1468-2346.JSTOR27695026.
^"The Civilian Deaths".Civilian deaths in the NATO air campaign. Human Rights Watch. February 2000. Retrieved3 May 2015.
^Kosovo Liberation Army: the inside story of an insurgency, by Henry H. Perritt[page needed]
^Frantz, Eva Anne (2009). "Violence and its Impact on Loyalty and Identity Formation in Late Ottoman Kosovo: Muslims and Christians in a Period of Reform and Transformation".Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs.29 (4):460–461.doi:10.1080/13602000903411366.S2CID143499467.
^Müller, Dietmar (2009). "Orientalism and Nation: Jews and Muslims as Alterity in Southeastern Europe in the Age of Nation-States, 1878–1941".East Central Europe.36 (1): 70.doi:10.1163/187633009x411485.
^Pllana, Emin (1985). "Les raisons de la manière de l'exode des refugies albanais du territoire du sandjak de Nish a Kosove (1878–1878) The reasons for the manner of the exodus of Albanian refugees from the territory of the Sanjak of Nish to Kosovo (1878–1878)".Studia Albanica.1:189–190.
^Rizaj, Skënder (1981). "Nënte Dokumente angleze mbi Lidhjen Shqiptare të Prizrenit (1878–1880) [Nine English documents about the League of Prizren (1878–1880)]".Gjurmine Albanologjike (Seria e Shkencave Historike).10: 198.
^Stefanović, Djordje (2005)."Seeing the Albanians through Serbian eyes: The Inventors of the Tradition of Intolerance and their Critics, 1804–1939".European History Quarterly.35 (3):469–470.doi:10.1177/0265691405054219.hdl:2440/124622.S2CID144497487.In 1878, following a series of Christian uprisings against the Ottoman Empire, the Russo-Turkish War, and the Berlin Congress, Serbia gained complete independence, as well as new territories in the Toplica and Kosanica regions adjacent to Kosovo. These two regions had a sizable Albanian population which the Serbian government decided to deport.. The 'cleansing' of Toplica and Kosanica would have long-term negative effects on Serbian-Albanian relations. The Albanians expelled from these regions moved over the new border to Kosovo, where the Ottoman authorities forced the Serb population out of the border region and settled the refugees there.. A number of Albanian refugees from Toplica region, radicalized by their experience, engaged in retaliatory violence against the Serbian minority in Kosovo...
^Elsie, Robert; Destani, Bejtullah (2018). Elsie, Robert; Destani, Bejtullah (eds.).Kosovo: A Documentary History from the Balkan Wars to World War II. New York: I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd. p. 134.ISBN978-1-78831-176-2.
^written Testimony of Ralf Mutschke Assistant Director, Criminal Intelligence Directorate International Criminal Police Organization – Interpol General Secretariat before a hearing of the Committee on the Judiciary Subcommittee on Crime (13 December 2000)."The Threat Posed by the Convergence of Organized Crime, Drugs Trafficking and Terrorism". United States House Judiciary Committee. Archived fromthe original on 26 February 2005. Retrieved31 May 2008.In 1998, the U.S. State Department listed the KLA as a terrorist organization
^Executive Order13088 of 9 June 1998. Blocking Property of the Governments of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), the Republic of Serbia, and the Republic of Montenegro, and Prohibiting New Investment in the Republic of Serbia in Response to the Situation in Kosovo. 63FR32109 (12 June 1998). "I, WILLIAM J. CLINTON, President of the United States of America, find that the actions and policies of the Governments of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) and the Republic of Serbia with respect to Kosovo, by promoting ethnic conflict and human suffering, threaten to destabilise countries of the region and to disrupt progress in Bosnia and Herzegovina in implementing the Dayton peace agreement, and therefore constitute an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States, and hereby declare a national emergency to deal with that threat."
^Ingrao, Charles (2012).Confronting the Yugoslav Controversies: A Scholars' Initiative. Indiana: Purdue University Press. pp. 332–333.ISBN978-1-61249-228-5.
^Berglund, Nina (8 January 2002)."Norway has forces in Afghanistan".Aftenposten English Web Desk. Archived fromthe original on 6 December 2008. Retrieved8 October 2008. (Mentions work in Kosovo / Pristina)
^Bakkeli, Tom (2007).Norges Hemmelige Krigere / Norway's secret Warriors (in Norwegian). Kagge.ISBN978-82-489-0722-0.
^Sergeant William Wright – B Company 9th Engineers (17 July 1999); Specialist Sherwood Brim – B Company 9th Engineers (17 July 1999); Private First Class Benjamin McGill – C Company 1st Battalion 26th Infantry (5 August 1995).
^Irvine, Reed; Kincaid, Cliff (24 November 1999)."Deceit And Lies Over Kosovo".aim.org. Accuracy in Media. Archived fromthe original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved13 September 2019.
^abPhillips, David L.; Burns, Nicholas (2012).Liberating Kosovo: Coercive Diplomacy and U.S. Intervention. MIT Press. p. 69.ISBN978-0-262-30512-9.He insisted that the KLA was "a creation of the Serb security forces". He was convinced that "the whole thing was a hoax orchestrated by Serb police to discredit the LDK"... Initial KLA supporters were disgruntled members of the LDK...Jakup Krasniqi, the KLA spokesman explains: "Everyone originally supported the LDK. I was an LDK member.
^Art, Robert J.; Cronin, Patrick M. (2003).The United States and Coercive Diplomacy. US Institute of Peace Press. pp. 76–.ISBN978-1-929223-45-9.By March 1998 "dissatisfaction" with and "antagonism" toward Rugova were evident in the actions of some prominent Kosovar Albanian political figures and in mass street demonstrations, leading one Albanian commentator for the local Helsinki Committee to conclude that "the bellogenrent option is gaining more followers, at the expense of the peaceful one.
^Karadjis, Mike (2000).Bosnia, Kosova & the West. Resistance Books. p. 178.ISBN978-1-876646-05-9....the fact that so much of Rugova's LDK and members of the non-violent movement, long admired for their "moderation", had joined KLA...
^abcPettifer, James; Vickers, Miranda (2007).The Albanian Question: Reshaping the Balkans. I.B. Tauris. pp. 166–168.ISBN978-1-86064-974-5.Although never numbering more than a few hundred soldiers... In contrast, as far as the KLA were concerned, FARK had a dubious commitment to fighting the Serbs, and was content to settle for greater autonomy rather than full independence for Kosova... Berisha seems, unwisely, to have relied on support from FARK for manpower in his attempt to overthrow the government. ...In a further dramatic development on the same day, the chief commander of FARK, Ahmet Krasniqi, was shot and killed by two masked gunmen in Tirana...Although no person has been arrested so far for the killing of Krasniqi, the incident served to focus attention on the activities of Kosovars involved in the war in Kosova who were coordinating their activities increasingly from Tirana. ...there were numerous theories as to who killed Krasniqi. Democrats were insistent that the FARK commander, who was residing temporarily in Tirana, was assassinated by the Albanian intelligence service, the SHIK...
^Bieber, Florian; Daskalovski, Zidas (2004).Understanding the War in Kosovo. Routledge. pp. 291–.ISBN978-1-135-76155-4.As shown earlier, the relations between Rugova and the Socialist-led government had deteriorated due to the foreign policy pursued by the Socialists but also by the latter's support of Hashim Thaci, former political leader of KLA...
^Goxhaj, Dilaver (23 January 2016),Jo shtatore ne Tirane atij qe nuk luftoi per clirimin e Kosoves [Not a monument in Tirana for him who did not fight for Kosovo liberation] (in Albanian), AAV, archived fromthe original on 7 March 2016, retrieved26 February 2016,Dihet gjithashtu që Rugova shkoi deri tek Presidenti Bill Klinton, më 28 maj 1998, i shoqëruar prej Fehmi Aganit, Bujar Bukoshit dhe Veton Surroi, për t'i kundërvënë UÇK-së edhe Amerikën, duke i thënë: "Grupet e armatosura në Kosovë, përgjithësishtë kanë pikpamje të majta, pra janë nga ata që kanë patur ide të majta, drejtohen nga njerëz që edhe sot e kësaj dite kanë nostalgji për ish figura të njohura komuniste, si për shëmbëll për Enver Hoxhën"
^Liebknecht, Rosa (10 April 1992),Inside the KLA,International Viewpoint, archived fromthe original on 3 March 2016, retrieved26 February 2016,In particular, it appears to have connections with the National Movement of Kosova, which was formed in 1982.
^Mincheva & Gurr 2013, p. 27: "The political entity that helped fund the KLA was People's Movement of Kosovo (LPK), a rival underground movement to Ibrahim Rugova's LDK."
^Lorimer, Doug (14 June 1999),NATO's Balkan War and the Kosova Liberation Struggle, Democratic Socialist Perspective – The Activist – Volume 9, archived fromthe original on 29 February 2016, retrieved26 February 2016,In an interview in April this year with a left-wing British magazine, Pleurat Sejdiiu, the diplomatic representative of the KLA in London, explained that the KLA had been formed in 1993 as the military wing of the Hoxhaite People's Movement of Kosova, the LPK. Sejdiiu, a member of the LPK since 1985, said that this decision had been made because of the LPK's frustration with the ineffectiveness of the passive civil disobedience line of the dominant Kosovar party, Ibrahim Rugova's Democratic League of Kosova, the LDK. Sejdiiu said: With the creation of the KLA, the LDK, especially Rugova, started accusing the KLA of being a bunch of people linked to the Serbian state security. Roguva was saying that Serbia had an interest in destabilising us all. That was pure demagoguery because Serbia had it in hand, they didn't need any destabilisation and they controlled everything. So we have actually to fight on two fronts. As well as the military campaign we had to fight politically against the LDK as the main force who has been opposed to any other methods than peaceful means, while all the time only sitting in their offices, having meetings and press conferences. They have even been against the student organisation having mass demonstrations. But oppression in Kosova went on all the time, growing day by day and the ranks of the KLA began to grow from those people who actually started with the idea that the only way to get our independence was armed struggle.
^Chih-Hann Chang (2013).Ethical Foreign Policy?: US Humanitarian Interventions. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 136–.ISBN978-1-4094-8943-6.Thaci was the main opponent of signing the agreement, while Rugova had minimal influence at the talks...When both parties returned to Paris in mid-March, the Kosovar Albanian delegation signed the accord...
^Krieger 2001, pp. 485–: "...the appeal for stopping the NATO strikes has come from Ibrahim Rugova, the acknowledged leader of the Kosovo Albanians."
^Kola, Paulin (2003).The search for Greater Albania. Hurst & Co. p. 360.ISBN978-1850656647.OCLC52978026.To complicate matters further for NATO, Rugova's first pronouncements confirmed fears that the Albanian leader was sticking to a deal with Milosevic.
^Kosova: Zgjedhje Historike [Kosovo: Historic Elections](PDF) (in Albanian),International Crisis Group, 21 November 2001, p. 9, archived fromthe original(PDF) on 30 November 2016, retrieved29 November 2016,Shumica menduan se partia dhe udhëheqësi i saj do të zhdukeshin politikisht pas fushatës së bombardimeve të NATO-s në 1999. Gjatë bombardimeve, Rugova u filmua në një takim me ish-presidentin jugosllav Sllobodan Millosheviç, dhe u akuzua nga disa si tepër paqësor. Pas bombardimeve UÇK-ja veproi me shpejtësi për të plotësuar boshllëkun e lënë nga ikja e forcave serbe, ndërsa Rugova edhe për disa javë qëndroi jashtë vendit. Megjithatë, vetëm një pakicë e shqiptarëve të Kosovës morën pjesë aktive në UÇK. Besnikëria ndaj LDK-së dhe Rugovës u rikthye ballë zmbrapsjes ndaj arrogancës së UÇK-së shfaqur në dëshirën për të kontrolluar ekonominë dhe politikën në kaosin para krijimit të UNMIK-ut. Pozicioni mbizotërues i LDK-së në zgjedhjet e tetorit 2000, e risolli atë si forcën mbizotëruese politike të Kosovës.
^Dossier: The cover-up of evidence of crimes during the war in Kosovo: The Concealment of Bodies Operation(PDF) (Report). Humanitarian Law Center. 2017. pp. 53–56. Retrieved10 April 2021.Over the past 12 years, the witnesses and representatives of the civil sector have come forward with evidence that, in addition to being hidden in mass graves on the territory of Serbia, the bodies of murdered Albanians have been burned in several locations in Serbia and Kosovo.
^"The Town Of Glogovac".hrw.org. Retrieved10 April 2021.A notable feature of Glogovac was the nearby Ferrous Nickel plant, called "Feronikl." The large mine and industrial complex was frequently used by Serbian and Yugoslav forces as a base of operations throughout 1998 and 1999. There were multiple, but as yet unconfirmed, reports that Feronikl was also used as a detention facility for Albanians since March 1998. Likewise, unconfirmed reports speak of a crematorium in Feronikl where Albanians were allegedly deposed of once the NATO bombing began.
^Lambeth, Benjamin S. (3 June 2006)."Kosovo and the Continuing SEAD Challenge".Aerospace Power Journal.United States Air Force. Archived fromthe original on 10 October 2006. Retrieved30 October 2006.On the fourth night of air operations, an apparent barrage of SA-3s downed an F-117 at approximately 2045 over hilly terrain near Budanovci, about 28 miles northwest of Belgrade- marking the first combat loss ever of a stealth aircraft.
^Mehmeti, Jeton (2015)."Faith and Politics in Kosovo: The status of Religious Communities in a Secular Country". In Roy, Olivier; Elbasani, Arolda (eds.).The Revival of Islam in the Balkans: From Identity to Religiosity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 72.ISBN978-1137517845. "Islamic heritage in general has received meagre legal attention although such heritage was severely damaged during the war. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) documented that, of 498 mosques that were in active use, approximately 225 of them were damaged or destroyed by Serbian military during the years 1998–1999."
^Herscher & Riedlmayer 2000, pp. 87. "The attack on Landovica's mosque was reprised throughout Kosovo during the eighteen months of the Serb counterinsurgency campaign. Approximately 225 of Kosovo's 600 mosques were vandalized, damaged, or destroyed during that campaign."
^abBevan, Robert (2007).The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. Reaktion books. p. 85.ISBN978-1861896384. "Although the priceless Serbian Orthodox heritage of Kosovo was damaged during the Kosovo conflict and after (and Serbia itself did indeed lose some buildings to NATO raids), it is the Muslim heritage, as in Bosnia, that was devastated by the war. A third of Kosovo's historic mosques were destroyed or damaged, as were 90 per cent of the traditional kulla (stone tower-houses), as part of the Serbian campaign of ethnic cleansing that followed the pattern set in Bosnia, and made worse by the efficiency lessons learned there. The destruction of Kosovo's non-Serb architectural heritage was a planned and methodical element of ethnic cleansing."
^De Lellio, Anna; Schwandner-Sievers, Stephanie (2006). "The Legendary Commander: the construction of an Albanian master-narrative in post-war Kosovo".Nations and Nationalism.12 (3): 522.doi:10.1111/j.1469-8129.2006.00252.x.
^Lambeth, Benjamin S. (3 June 2006)."Kosovo and the Continuing SEAD Challenge".Aerospace Power Journal.United States Air Force. Archived fromthe original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved28 May 2011.Serb air defenders could have employed low-frequency radars for the best chance of getting a snap look at the aircraft. Former F-117 pilots and several industry experts acknowledged that the aircraft is detectable by such radars when viewed from the side or directly below.
Freitag, Markus, Sara Kijewski, and Malvin Oppold. (2019) "War experiences, economic grievances, and political participation in postwar societies: An empirical analysis of Kosovo."Conflict management and peace science 36.4 (2019): 405–424.
Hoxha, Abit, and Kenneth Andresen. (2021) "Violence, War, and Gender: Collective Memory and Politics of Remembrance in Kosovo." inEuropeanisation and Memory Politics in the Western Balkans (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021) pp. 263–283.
Kahn, Paul W. (2017) "War and sacrifice in Kosovo." inPhilosophical Dimensions of Public Policy (Routledge, 2017) pp. 201–209.online
Lambeth, Benjamin S.NATO's Air War for Kosovo: A Strategic and Operational Assessment (2001)
McAllister, Jacqueline R. "The Extraordinary Gamble: How the Yugoslav Tribunal's Indictment of Slobodan Milosevic during the Kosovo War Affected Peace Efforts."Brown Journal of World Affairs 26 (2019): 201+.
Neumann, Iver B. (2018) "Kosovo and the end of the legitimate warring state." inMapping European security after Kosovo (Manchester University Press, 2018)online.
Rasmussen, Mikkel Vedby. (2018) "‘War is never civilised’: Civilisation, civil society and the Kosovo war". (Manchester University Press, 2018)online.
Targeting History and Memory, SENSE – Transitional Justice Center (dedicated to the study, research, and documentation of the destruction and damage of historic heritage during the Balkan Wars of the 1990s. The website contains judicial documents from the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY)).
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