TheKosovo Myth (Serbian:Косовски мит /Kosovski mit), also known as theKosovo Cult (Косовски култ /Kosovski kult) and theKosovo Legend (Косовска легенда /Kosovska legenda), is a Serbiannational myth based on legends about events related to theBattle of Kosovo (1389). It is rooted inPrince Lazar's apocryphal choice during the battle at theKosovo Polje, where he is said to have rejected an earthly victory over theOttomanSultan Murad I and chose to die as aChristian martyr in favor of a "heavenly kingdom". This choice, as the narrative suggests, was intended to positionSerbs as a chosen people and secure a spiritual covenant with God and a place in the Kingdom of Heaven.
It has been a major subject inSerbian folklore andliterary tradition and has been cultivated throughoral epic poetry andguslar poems. The final form of the legend was not created immediately after the battle but evolved from different originators into various versions. In its modern form it emerged in 19th-centurySerbia and served as an important constitutive element of thenational identity of modern Serbia and its politics.
In the myth, as opposed to what actually happened in reality,Vuk Branković withdrew his troops at crucial moments, thus becoming a symbol of a betrayal, whileMiloš Obilić assassinated Murad I and then was executed. In fact, Branković fought valiantly to the end.
InOttoman Serbia, the myth was interpreted as a fatalistic ideological acceptance of the Ottoman Empire and originally was not linked to theSerbs as a people, but to the downfall ofSerbian feudal society. In the modern narratives of the myth, defeat in battle was characterized as the downfall of the glorious medieval Serbian state and subsequent long-lastingOttoman occupation andslavery. According to legend the sacrifice of Prince Lazar and his knights resulted in the defeat, while the Serbs were presented as thechosen people who signed aCovenant with God. The Kosovo Myth is modeled on well-knownChristian symbols, such as the biblicalLast Supper,Judas' betrayal of Jesus, andnumbers that have religious associations. It pictures Serbia as essentially a variant of theAntemurale Christianitatis motif as a bulwark ofChristendom against the Ottoman Empire.
One of the earliest records that contributed to the cult of Lazar's martyrdom was found in theSerbian Orthodox Church, primarily written byDanilo III,Serbian Patriarch (1390–1396) and nunJefimija. Over the following centuries, many writers and chroniclers wrote down oral legends they heard in theBalkans. In 1601,Ragusan chroniclerMavro Orbini published theKingdom of the Slavs, which was important for the reconstruction and development of the myth, combining the records of historians and folk legends, while theTronoša Chronicle (1791) also significantly contributed to the preservation of the legend. The development of myth was also influenced by Frenchchanson de geste. The final form of the Kosovo Myth was constructed by philologistVuk Karadžić, who published the "Kosovo Cycle" after collecting traditional epic poems.
ManySouth Slavic literary and visual artists were influenced by Kosovo legends, including some highly internationally recognized. The most significant ones who have perpetuated the Kosovo Myth are the metropolitan and poetPetar II Petrović-Njegoš with his epic dramaThe Mountain Wreath (1847) and the sculptorIvan Meštrović, while one of the main artistic representation is the paintingKosovo Maiden (1919) byUroš Predić. Since its establishment, the myth and its poetic, literary, religious, and philosophical exposition was intertwined with political and ideological agendas. It became a central myth ofSerbian nationalism used in the 19th century, and its importance was especially raised since theCongress of Berlin (1878). The myth was widely promulgated inMontenegro as well and it served advocates ofPan-Slavism andYugoslavism beforethe creation of Yugoslavia in early 20th century.
It was evoked at times of major historic events such as theassassination ofArchduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria,World War I,creation of Yugoslavia, and theYugoslav coup d'état. The myth portrays Kosovo as the spiritual and cultural heart of Serbia, with the narrative having historically been used to emphasize Serbian identity and claims to the region. As such, the myth has been invoked inSerbian nationalism to justify opposition toKosovo's independence, and was especially used to bolster a Serbian victimization narrative during the rise of Serbian nationalism in the 1980s, thebreakup of Yugoslavia, andKosovo War.
The central events in the myth are related to theBattle of Kosovo that took place in 1389, about which numerous details are not actually known.[1][2][3][4] According to legend, the Serbian rulerPrince Lazar, who was referred to asTsar ("Emperor") Lazar, was offered an ultimatum to pay homage to the Ottoman sultanMurad I, leaving the control of Serbian lands to the sultan andtaxation, or to lead his army into the battle on theKosovo Polje.[5] On the last supper before the battle hosted by Lazar, he told his knights that one of them would betray him.[6] Deceived by his son-in-lawVuk Branković, he accusedMiloš Obilić, which Obilić opposed, claiming that he would kill Murаd I.[7][8][9]
Per legend, Lazar was visited the night before battle by agrey hawk orfalcon fromJerusalem who offered a choice between an "earthly kingdom", implying victory at the Battle, or theKingdom of Heaven, where the Serbs would be defeated.[10][5] It is sometimes said that thebiblical prophetElijah appeared in the form of a falcon.[11][12][13] Lazar chose to die as aChristian martyr, thus achieving a special status for Serbs as a heavenly people.[14][15] The warriors accepted his words, stating that the Serbs would get freedom in heaven, but that they would never be enslaved.[16] Lazar alsocursed those Serbs who refuse to join him on the battlefield.[17][18][19] He and the Serbian army receivedcommunion in theChurch of St. John the Baptist inSamodreža.[20]
The battle took place on the ChristianSt. Vitus Day, known in Serbia asVidovdan. After an agreement with the Ottoman sultan, in order to preserve his positions, Vuk Branković withdrew his troops at crucial moments of the battle, thus becoming symbol of a betrayal.[21][18] Pretending to surrender after the abandon of Lazar, Obilić came to the sultan's tent and after kneeling to allegedly kiss Murad's feet, took out a dagger and mortally wounded him.[22][21][23] The dying sultan ordered Obilić's execution, while this sacrifice showed his loyalty to Lazar and heroism.[6][22] Defeat in battle was characterized as the downfall of the glorious medieval Serbian state and subsequent long-lastingOttoman occupation andslavery.[24][2][22] In Serbian tradition, the red color of thePaeonia peregrina has become a symbol of "bloodshed in the Battle of Kosovo".[16]
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On the other hand, Lazar was captured by theOttoman Turks and beheaded.[25][26] The sacrifice of Lazar and his knights for the sake of the Kingdom of Heaven resulted in the defeat of the Serbian army by the Turks, while the Serbs were presented as thechosen people who signed aCovenant with God.[27][18] Other famous knights who according to legends participated wereMilan Toplica,Ivan Kosančić,Pavle Orlović,Stevo Vasojević, and theMusić brothers.[28][29][30] There are also key female characters in the Kosovo Myth, who symbolize the great losses and isolation in which Serbs, especially women, lived during Ottoman rule.[6]Princess Milica, who was referred to asTsaritsa ("Empress") Milica, was Lazar's wife and member of theNemanjić dynasty.[31] She begged Lazar to keep his youngest brother Boško so that one of the nineJugović brothers would surely survive, which Boško himself refused and then became aflag-bearer during the battle.[32][33] Their mother died of a broken heart after losing all nine sons in battle.[32][21][34] Another female character is aKosovo Maiden, a girl who came to Kosovo Polje the morning after the battle and cared for the wounded Serbian warriors, giving them water and wine.[32][21][34]
Also, birds often appear in the legend, which should symbolize the connection between the earth and the heaven.[35]Ravens can speak and play the role of messengers, and so canswallows.[36] The mother of nine Jugović asked God for "eyes of afalcon, white wings of aswan" which was fulfilled for her, so she could fly over the battlefield and see her sons andhusband fighting.[37] Then, the raven gave her a confirmation of the death of her family members.[38][34] In addition to the transformation of Elijah, the falcon represented warriors.[36] Contrary to common symbols,doves were called cowardly and weak enemies, andeagles were depicted asscavengers the flesh of the victims.[36]
Ljubinka Trgovčević described the elements and symbolism of the myth:[24]
Many parts and characters in the myth are modeled on well-known Christian symbols.[39][40] While Lazar is portrayed asJesus and faith, the dinner that he headed the night before the battle has the attributes of the biblicalLast Supper, including the presence of hisdisciples and Vuk Branković, the traitor orJudas figure.[6][16][40] Like Jesus, Lazar died so that his people could live.[6] Also, numbers that have religious associations such asTwelve Apostles andTrinity are often used in the legend.[37]
The Kosovo Myth presents the battle as "a titanic contest between Christian Europe and the Islamic East" in which Lazar renounced "the earthly kingdom for a heavenly one".[41] The Kosovo Myth pictures Serbia asAntemurale Christianitatis (Bulwark of Christianity), similarly to constructions of the other nations in the Balkans.[42] It is sometimes propagated to evoke a sense of pride and national grievance among Serbs.[43] Since the battle on Kosovo Polje, this hill came to be seen as the "cradle of Serbia" and one of the most Serb nation's mostholy places.[44]Sabrina P. Ramet compared the myths about Prince Lazar with the myths about the knighthood of theKing Arthur and the martyrdom ofOlaf II of Norway, as well as the legends aboutStephen I of Hungary.[45] Gerlachlus Duijzings noted that, in a similar way,Naim Frashëri tried throughBektashism to promote theBattle of Karbala myth amongAlbanians as a source of inspiration intheir struggle against Ottoman domination, although that myth has a similar contest and style as the Serbian-Orthodox Kosovo Myth.[46]
The Kosovo Myth has for a long time been a central subject inSerbian folklore and Serbianliterary tradition, and for centuries was cultivated mostly in the form oforal epic poetry andguslar poems.[47] The mythologization of the battle occurred shortly after the event.[48] The legend was not fully formed immediately after the battle but evolved from different originators into various versions.[49] Many sources from 14th to 18th century have preserved oral narration of the Kosovo Battle, such as chronicles, genealogies, annals, religious cult texts and travellers' tales.[50] Epic poetry was well developed among Serbs and represented a cultural source of pride, identity and a strong connection to the past.[51] One of the earliest records that contributed to the development of the cult of martyrdom and God's special favor for Lazar are theNarration about Prince Lazar byDanilo III,Serbian Patriarch (1390–1396), and theEncomium of Prince Lazar by a nunJefimija, a widow of the despotUglješa Mrnjavčević.[9][1][52][53]
The first Serbian record of the assassination of the Ottoman Sultan Murad I was theLife of Despot Stefan Lazarević byConstantine of Kostenets, although the name of the executor was not mentioned.[1][9] The heroic image of the Battle of Kosovo and the cult of Lazar's martyrdom has lost its force over time. The epic expression of the Battle was cultivated in the emigration of Serbs to the mountainous regions ofOld Serbia,Montenegro andHerzegovina.[1] Following theFall of Constantinople (1453), three thousand Serbs began a nomadic life. In these regions, the image of the Kosovo hero was cultivated and preserved.[1] The figure of Murad's assassin probably originated in the culture of exile, where his heroic deed could inspire constant resistance to the Turks.[1] TheByzantine historians from the 15th century,Doukas andLaonikos Chalkokondyles also wrote about the Battle and about "sacrifice of a Christian nobleman who killed the Sultan in his tent".[23][54][55] Serbian soldier and author of a memoirKonstantin Mihailović was the first to mention the name of Miloš Obilić in his work theMemoirs of a Janissary (ca. 1497), while he also described the betrayal of Vuk Branković.[1][53][4] An anonymous resident ofDubrovnik orDalmatia translated Doukas' parts about the Battle of Kosovo, citing the moment of the betrayal, but attributed it to Dragoslav Pribišić.[9]Italian literature and popular poetry inRepublic of Ragusa influenced educated Serbian exiles to produce the firstbugarštice based on the accumulation of oral history in the late 15th century.[56] Some of thebugarštice cultivated the Kosovo Legend.[53][49][57]
According toMiodrag Popović, in the Ottoman Serbia of the 16th and 17th century, the local population was"Turkophilic" in accordance with the general climate of necessary adaptation to Ottoman rule.[58][59] Тhey did not give the legend of the Battle of Kosovo an interpretation unfavorable or hostile to the Ottoman Turks.[58] During the 16th century,Benedikt Kuripečič wrote a travel description of theBalkans and recorded the legends he heard, including Lazar's Last Supper and Obilić's heroism.[1][60][61] TheIllustrated Chronicle of Ivan the Terrible (1567) contains nineminiatures about the events from the Kosovo legends, mostly related to the battle.[62] In 1601, Ragusan chroniclerMavro Orbini published theKingdom of the Slavs inItalian, which was important for the reconstruction and development of the myth, combining the records of historians and folk legends.[9][63][4][48]
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In the following period, many stories were published by anonymous authors in Ragusa andBay of Kotor, the most significant and most comprehensive was theLife of Prince Lazar, also known as theTale of the Battle of Kosovo, from the beginning of the 18th century.[9][53][23] At the request ofPeter the Great,Russian Emperor, a diplomatSava Vladislavich translated the Orbini'sKingdom of the Slavs intoRussian in 1722.[9] In the middle of the 18th century, under the influence of previous manuscripts, theTronoša Chronicle (1791) was compiled which contributed to the further preservation of the Kosovo legend.[9][53][64] Characters of the myth have been also recorded in the works ofĐorđe Branković,Vasilije Petrović andPavle Julinac.[9][4]
During the 18th century, anti-Ottoman sentiments increased, and more comprehensive Kosovo legend became an integral part of the oral tradition.[59] During theFirst Serbian Uprising (1804–1813), a fresco of Miloš as ahaloed, sword-bearingsaint was painted in Lazar'snarthex in theHilandar Monastery onMount Athos, Greece.[23][65] PhilologistVuk Karadžić collected traditional epic poems related to the topic of the Battle of Kosovo and released the so-called "Kosovo Cycle", which became the final version of the transformation of the myth.[59][66] Karadžić's work was influenced byJernej Kopitar, who introduced him to the literature ofRomantic nationalism, as well as byJacob Grimm, who became his reviewer and translator.[67][68] Kopitar's ideology was rooted inHerder's view that each group possesses a unique culture that manifests itself through the language and tradition of the common people.[67] Karadžić mostly published oral songs, with special reference to the heroic deeds ofPrince Marko and the Kosovo Battle-related events, just like the singers sang without changes or additions.[69] He collected most of the poems about Lazar near the monasteries onFruška Gora, mostly because the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church wasmoved there after theGreat Migrations of the Serbs.[68] The folk poems about the Kosovo legend can also be found in the collections ofAvram Miletić,Ivan Franjo Jukić,Franz Miklosich,Valtazar Bogišić andGrgo Martić.[9][53] The development of myth structure was also influenced by Frenchchanson de geste.[9][70]
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The Kosovo Cycle consists of the following epic poems:[71][72]
The scale of interpretations of the Kosovo Myth is undeniably one of the richest. It can be interpreted as "democratic, anti-feudal, with a love for justice and social equality".[73] The myth never referred in those early versions to the "destiny of Serbs as a nation", but to the collapse of Serbian feudal society and its rulers.[74] The myth can be interpreted in different ways in connection with other myths like: myth of military valor, myth of victimhood, myth of salvation and myth ofchosen people.[75] It is a myth of Golden Age and Fall.[76] Since its late 19th century ideological construction,[77] the Kosovo myth describes Kosovo as the metaphorical cradle of the Serb nation, and the Serbs as a chosen people.[44][78][79] The Kosovo myth is incorporated into the Serb national identity's multifacetedmythomoteur.[80] Military defeat in the Kosovo Battle was portrayed as a moral victory.[81] The centrality of the Kosovo Myth was one of the main causes for merging ethnic and Orthodox Christian religious identity of Serbs.[82] The division of earthly and heavenly power and the choice of the latter by Lazar was meant by the church as a tool of legitimization of Ottoman power among Orthodox Slavs, while at the same time the myth enforced the primacy of the Serbian Orthodox Church over religious affairs.[83] Albanian nationalism in Kosovo has its own narratives, that counter with the Serb Kosovo myth.[84]
The lack of eyewitnesses accounts of the battle and the early development of the legend made it difficult to comprehend the facts related to the Battle of Kosovo.[1][4] What is reliably known are the journey of the Turks fromPlovdiv to Gazimestan, the time and place of the event, as well as the deaths of both rulers.[1][4] Lazar's Christian coalition also included the unit of theKing of BosniaTvrtko I, as well asAlbanian,Bulgarian,Croatian,Czech,Greek,Hungarian,Frankish, andWallachian forces.[85][86][87][88][1][4] TheSerbian Empire began to break-up soon after the death ofStefan Dušan (1355) and it had alreadycollapsed long before the Kosovo Battle.[1][89] The outcome of the battle is not clear from the source either.[5] There are different conclusions, but the most common are those about the Ottoman victory.[48]Tim Judah cites the possibility of a Serbian victory, whileNoel Malcolm claims that the outcome was a draw.[5] Although Serbia's strategic fall was theBattle of Maritsa in 1371, Kosovo was the spiritual fall of Serbia and a beginning of a new era for the Serbs. The real Kosovo Battle was not as decisive as presented by the myth because the final downfall of medieval Serbian state happened 70 years after it, in 1459, when the Ottomans capturedSmederevo.[9][42]
Historians cannot reliably establish the identity of Murad's assassin, as well as the existence of betrayal by Vuk Branković or anyone else.[2][90] There are various theories about the death of the sultan.[48] Noel Malcolm explained that the story of the betrayal arose of confusion with the narratives related to theSecond Battle of Kosovo (1448), whenĐurađ Branković,Despot of Serbia and the son of Vuk Branković, refused to joinJohn Hunyadi,Regent of Hungary, in the fight against the Ottomans.[91] The Jugovići family and the Kosovo Maiden are fictionalized characters.[2][92][93] Brendan Humphreys noted that the part of the story of Lazar's choice is a metaphysical narrative added to a historical event by the most religious literalist.[93]
In the first half of the 19th century, plays about the characters of the Kosovo Myth have been published by Serbian authors educated in theAustrian Empire, who adopted ideas combiningEnlightenmentrationalism and Romantic nationalism.[53] Some of the dramas were works byZaharije Orfelin, the Miloš Obilić (1828) byJovan Sterija Popović,Tsar Lazar or theFall of the Serbian Empire (1835) by Isidor Nikolić and theMiloš Obilić (1858) byJovan Subotić.[53][94]Matija Ban, a Serbian poet, dramatist, and playwright from Dubrovnik, included the motives of the Kosovo myth in the dramaTsar Lazar or the Defeat at Kosovo (1858), gradually giving them the values of Romantic nationalism.[53]
The poetPetar II Petrović-Njegoš,Prince-Bishop of Montenegro (1830–1851), and his epic dramaThe Mountain Wreath (1847), which is considered as masterpiece and one of the most celebrated works in the South Slavic literature, represents a prominent example that glorifies the heroic ideals and spirit of the Kosovo Myth.[95][96][97] It covers a legendary struggle to extermination against converted Muslim Slavs and Ottoman domination.[98][95][99] Petrović-Njegoš often referred to the characters of the Kosovo Myth, cursing Vuk Branković and celebrating Miloš Obilić, and also used birds as symbols.[100][99]
At the 500th anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo (1889),Franjo Rački andTomislav Maretić, the key people of theYugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts inZagreb, gave lectures on the Battle of Kosovo and epic songs dedicated to it.[53] During the 19th century, the Serbian government financed painters such asĐorđe Krstić andNikola Aleksić to decorate churches and monasteries with paintings andfrescoes with motifs of Kosovo martyrs.[101] Many significant Serbian painters,Adam Stefanović,Pavle Čortanović,Paja Jovanović andAnastas Jovanović, portrayed the heroes and motifs of epic poems from the Kosovo cycle, while the most prominent painting became theKosovo Maiden (1919) byUroš Predić.[102] One of the most notable Serbian artistsĐura Jakšić wrote and painted inspired by the Kosovo Myth.[103]
In the early 20th century, several concerts and plays in theNational Theatre in Belgrade were dedicated to the Battle of Kosovo and heroes.[104] The play "Death of the Mother of the Jugović" byIvo Vojnović, a poet and playwright from Dubrovnik, was first performed in Belgrade in 1906 and in Zagreb in 1907.[53] The first Serbian film,The Life and Deeds of the Immortal Leader Karađorđe (1911) directed byIlija Stanojević, which portraysKarađorđe's leadership of theFirst Serbian Uprising of 1804–1813, also features a famous guslarFilip Višnjić who sings about the events of the Kosovo Myth.[105]
Croatian sculptorIvan Meštrović contributed to the Myth when in 1907–11, he was commissioned to design the Vidovdan Temple as "the eternal ideal of heroism, loyalty and sacrifice, from which our race draws its faith and moral strength" and "collective ideal of the Serbian people". The temple's actual construction on the Field of Kosovo was postponed because of theBalkan Wars,World War I,World War II, and eventually shelved.[24][53] Many of Meštrović's works dedicated to the Kosovo legends and heroes attracted much attention and were exhibited in many European cities, including in theGrafton Galleries inLondon and at theVenice Biennale.[24][53] Croatian painterMirko Rački, also adopted the mythos and painted numerous paintings within Kosovo cycle, includingThe Mother of the Jugović,Nine Jugović brothers,Kosovo Maiden andMiloš Obilić.[24]
French translation of Serbian epic songs of the Kosovo CycleChants de guerre de la Serbie, étude, traductions, commentaires (1916) byLéo d'Orfer [fr] was awarded anPrix Langlois by theAcadémie Française.[24] Shortly after thewithdrawal of theSerbian Army through Kosovo and Albania duringWorld War I, the poets began writing on Kosovo topics again.[24] In 1917,Milutin Bojić published thePoems of pain and pride, a lyrical depiction of the torture of people during the war, and deeply affected by the events he wrote: "We bravely sow our new graves... O, Lord, haven't we had enough punishment... It is time to lift the gravestones".[24] The same year, poetMilosav Jelić wrote theSerbian sequence andRastko Petrović published the "Kosovo Sonnet".[24] Serbian scholar andHellenistMiloš N. Đurić explored some elements of the Kosovo Myth from the standpoint ofethics.[106][107]
Works ofIvo Andrić, who won theNobel Prize in Literature in 1961, are sometimes associated with the Kosovo Myth.[108][109] He wrote an essay about Petrović Njegoš called the "Tragic hero of Kosovo thought". The martyrdom of Radisav, a character from Andrić's most famous novelThe Bridge on the Drina (1945), has been described by some scholars as the reworking of Kosovo legacy and afounding myth of the Serbian nation.[109][110] In 1953, theSerbian communist government hiredAleksandar Deroko to design theGazimestan monument commemorating the Kosovo's heroes andPetar Lubarda to decorate the ceremonial hall of theRepublican Executive Council with a large wall painting depicting the Battle of Kosovo.[53]
On the occasion of the 600th anniversary (1989), the filmBattle of Kosovo directed byZdravko Šotra, based on the drama written by poetLjubomir Simović, was released.[53][18] In the same year, the poet and writerMatija Bećković coined the famous phrase "Kosovo, the most expensive Serbian word" (Kosovo, najskuplja srpska reč), while a popular folk songVidovdan performed byGordana Lazarević [sr] and composed byMilutin Popović Zahar [sr] was published.[53][111] In his documentary theSerbian Epics (1992), theAcademy Award-winning directorPaweł Pawlikowski portrayed members of theArmy of Republika Srpska chanting traditional epic songs about the Battle of Kosovo during theBosnian War.[112] ThePulitzer Prize-winning poetCharles Simic was strongly influenced by the narrative andmagic realism of the Kosovo Cycle.[113]
AlthoughAndrićgrad, founded inVišegrad in 2014 by the two-timePalme d'Or-winning filmmakerEmir Kusturica, is named after Ivo Andrić, it is believed that its purpose is to maintain the Kosovo Myth and the Serbian national consciousness.[53][114] The main church of Andrićgrad is a copy of theVisoki Dečani in Kosovo and is dedicated to the Holy Emperor Lazar and the Kosovo martyrs.[114] After 15 years of renovation, theNational Museum of Serbia in Belgrade was re-opened on Vidovdan, 28 June 2018.[115] Among others, the museum exhibitscaryatids designed by Ivan Meštrović, which were supposed to be in his proposed Vidovdan Temple.[116]
In 2017, Russianheavy metal bandKipelov released the song "Kosovo Polye" (Kosovo Field) about "Serbia's national tragedy in the historic battle.[117]
Since its establishment, the Kosovo Myth and its poetic, literary, religious, and philosophical exposition was intertwined with political and ideological agendas.[83][118] It has had a large impact on Serbian society, and has served as the most powerful Serbian cultural myth.[119] The Myth served as an important constitutive element of thenational identity of modern Serbia and its politics.[83] HistorianSima Ćirković criticised what he called "Vidovdan mythology" on the notion that it was overshadowing the real traditions about the historical Kosovo battle, which were incorrectly labeled as "Kosovo Myth".[120]
The Kosovo Myth became a central myth ofSerbian nationalism used in the 19th century.[121] Like other European nationalisms, the Serbian one searched for a "glorious past" and a "golden age".[32] Writers on nationalism often conclude the golden age with a national catastrophe.[122]
Karađorđe,Grand Vožd of Serbia (1804–1813) and the leader of the First Serbian Uprising, declared himself thegodfather of every 9th child in the family, alluding to the nine Jugović brothers.[123] Throughout most of the 19th century it didn't carry its later importance, as thePrincipality of Serbia saw the region of Bosnia as its core, not Kosovo. TheCongress of Berlin (1878) was the event which caused the elevation of the Kosovo myth in its modern status. The region of Bosnia was effectively handed out to Austria-Hungary and Serbian expansion towards that area was blocked, which in turn left southwards expansion towards Kosovo as the only available geopolitical alternative for the Serbian state.[83] In the 1860s, the Kosovo myth was used as a theme to freedom and democracy among SerbiaLiberals andRadicals, while the rulingConservatives and the Court used it to compare the opposition with the "treacherous Vuk Branković".[124] The 500th anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo (1889) was massively celebrated, with the main commemoration ceremonies inKruševac,Lazar's former capital, andRavanica, Lazar's burial place.[125] One year later,Vidovdan became a state holiday.[125]
There was a deep belief amongMontenegrin people that they descended from Serb knights who fled after the battle and settled in the unreachable mountains.[126] The Kosovo Myth was present among the people in Montenegro before the time ofPetar II Petrović-Njegoš, in the form of folk legends and especiallyfolk songs.[127] He introduced the traditionalMontenegrin cap with the aim of strengthening the presence of the Kosovo Myth in everyday life and emphasizing the direct connection withmedieval Serbia.[98]Nicholas I of Montenegro (Prince 1860–1910 and King 1910–1918) successfully used the motives of the Kosovo Myth with the aim of strengthening Montenegrin patriotism, dreaming of restoring the Serbian Empire.[128]
The messages of the Kosovo Myth were used for the idea ofYugoslav unity.[129] The commemoration of the 500th anniversary was also held in Croatia despite restrictions imposed by theHabsburg authorities.[130] At the beginning of the 20th century, with the Yugoslav idea spreading, the Kosovo Myth also became a trope in common culture ofCroats andSlovenes.[129]
On Vidovdan in 1914,Gavrilo Princip, theBosnian Serb member ofYoung Bosnia,assassinatedArchduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria which initiated theJuly Crisis and led to the outbreak ofWorld War I.[125] Princip,Nedeljko Čabrinović and other members of the Young Bosnia were inspired by the heroism of Miloš Obilić, reenacting the Kosovo Myth.[125][22][97] Princip knew the entireThe Mountain Wreath of Njegoš.[97]
In 1916, theYugoslav Committee declared Vidovdan as a national holiday of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.[128] The Myth was used by main advocates of theYugoslav ideology as a pan-Yugoslav myth in theKingdom of Yugoslavia.[131] In 1920, Vidovdan became one of the three public holidays called "St. Vitus' Day Heroes", aimg to the symbolic integration of the member of the 'nation with three names', while on 28 June 1921, theVidovdan Constitution was adopted.[132]
The Kosovo Myth was used by Serbian nationalists before WWI as an ideological tool in order to argue for a Serbian-led Yugoslavia instead of Yugoslavia as state of allSouth Slavs equally. The government moved graves of the Balkan war dead to graveyards and monuments of national creation. This was to further establish the leaders' narrative of glory, sacrifice, and the hopeful unification of Southern Slavs (Kosovo). The graves were used to uphold the narrative that many Serbians believed to be true: that the land was destined to be theirs.[133][134]
The Kosovo Myth also played a role and ideologically shaped thecoup d'état (27 March 1941) provoked by theYugoslav accession to the Tripartite Pact.[125] Serbian PatriarchGavrilo V who strongly opposed the signing, used the motives of the Kosovo Myth in his radio speech.[135][136]Milan Nedić and hispuppet government of theGerman-occupied territory of Serbia also evoked the Myth, insisting that the Yugoslavresistance movements were direct opponents of the values and legacy of Kosovo heroes.[137][53] TheUstaše used Vidovdan as an excuse for massacres during theGenocide of Serbs in theIndependent State of Croatia, stating that the Serbs would start a rebellion on that holiday.[138]
Following theSFR Yugoslavia's expulsion from theCominform on Vidovdan in 1948, a government ministerMilovan Đilas commented that the expelling resolution "cut into the minds and hearts of all us Serbs" and noted "the coincidence in dates between ancient calamities and living threats and onslaughts".[139]Josip Broz Tito made little use of the Kosovo Cult, focusing more on self-serving heroic narrative.[140]
The Kosovo Myth was used to create a Serbian victimization narrative.[141] This myth and its connection to the Serbian victim-centered position was used to legitimize reincorporation of the whole Kosovo into Serbia.[76][141] The Kosovo Myth was activated and linked to the metaphors of 'genocide'.[76] Albanians were presented by Serb writers as a treacherous and violent people who were settled in Kosovo to collaborate with Ottoman occupiers and terrorize Christian Serbs.[76] They were at times accused of persecution and genocide of Kosovo Serbs since the Middle Ages.[76] This portrayal included claims of a centuries-long genocide of Serbs continued in the 19th century through the forcible expulsion of up to 150,000 Serbs, and also in Tito's Yugoslavia that 'morally disqualified' Albanians to claim any control of Kosovo at the expense of Serbs. There was little statistical information to support these Serbian claims of genocide, nor was rape as frequent an occurrence there as the Serbian nationalists alleged it to be. According toDavid Bruce MacDonald, this style of "paranoid rhetoric" demonstrates both the perseverance and versatility of Serbian writers when faced with the reality that Serbs had not been victims of genocide in any conventional sense.[76]
YugoslavCommunist authorities, who downplayed the national histories of the country's communities, worked to suppress the Kosovo myth in Serbia.[142] In the context of the Kosovo myth,Greater Serbian propagandists have produced various slogans regarding Kosovo in contemporary Serbia.[143] The myth was used by the Milošević government and Serbian Orthodox Church to create a narrative of superior Serbdom in conflict with barbarian forces, in order to justify violent actions that were being planned at the time.[44] This way, the myth was utilized as an ideological instrument which fueled policies that led to theKosovo War along with other political decisions.[44] However, the causes of the war were complex and could not be reduced to the existence of a national myth, but it was used to legitimize Milošević's reign.[44] Leading up to theKosovo War, the contemporaryKosovo Albanian political mythology clashed with the Kosovo Myth.[dubious –discuss][144] During the Yugoslav wars, the Kosovo myth was prevalent, with new war commanders and politicians being compared to heroes from the battle of Kosovo, some of which were later suspected of war crimes.[145] During theBosnian War andBosnian genocide,Ratko Mladić, Commander of theArmy of Republika Srpska, often calledBosniaks"Turks", calling on his troops for revenge and "the Revolt against the Dahijas".[53][146] The important role of the Kosovo myth in Republika Srpska is most clearly manifested in the fact thatVidovdan was declared in 1992 as an officialslava (feast day) of the Bosnian Serb army, while for most of Bosnian Serbs, Ratko Mladić was considered theLazar of modern times who with his soldiers fought the Turks.[145]
Vidovdan was also a date that symbolized the rise and fall of Milošević, as hegave a speech in the presence of about а million people in 1989 to mark the 600th anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo, and later was arrested and extradited to theICTY on 28 June 2001 to standtrial for charges of war crimes.[147] Kosovo remained high on the agenda ofVojislav Koštunica, who served as thePresident of FR Yugoslavia (2000–2003) andPrime Minister of Serbia (2004–2008).[148][53] He commented, among other things, that a new fight is being waged for control of Kosovo, this time with theUnited States, and that "the key question is whether force will prevail over justice in the new Battle of Kosovo".[148]
After the election victory of theFor a European Serbia coalition in 2008, they announced that they would not give up their "Kosovo orientation".[53] Оn the anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo in 2009,Boris Tadić,President of Serbia (2004–2012), said :"Nobody can take Vidovdan from Serbia and from Serbs", but that it should not be celebrated as in 1989, which led to wars and sanctions, whileVuk Jeremić, the newMinistry of Foreign Affairs, characterized Vidovdan as a "symbol of defence of Serbian national identity".[53]
UponBritain's entry into theFirst World War on 4 August 1914, the British aimed to show solidarity with their new allies,Serbia included. On 28 June, "Kossovo Day" was proclaimed in Britain, with celebrations held across the country, with "Kossovo" being an intentional reference to the famous myth. InFrance, folk poems concerning the Kosovo epic were published during the war while some French authors emphasized the importance of the Kosovo Myth in strengthening the "energy for revenge".[24][149] In 1915, theFrench government ordered schools to modify their curricula to include lessons on Serbia and Serbian history, while posters in support of Serbia were pasted inParis andLondon, including calls for prayer during Kossovo Day.[150]
The pro-Serbian Kosovo Committee was established in London in 1916, headed byElsie Inglis, and its members includedRobert Seton-Watson,Arthur Evans andCharles Oman.[130] They organized a gathering in support of Serbia inSt Paul's Cathedral.[24] Serbian historian andUniversity of Belgrade professorPavle Popović gave a speech at the celebration of the day inCambridge.[24] Seton-Watson wrote an essay about Serbia and its history, which was read in schools across Britain. Several eminent historians soon began contributing to the pro-Serbian feeling in Britain, often recalling the Kosovo Myth while doing so.[150] Pro-Serbian events along with Kossovo Day were also held in theUnited States, and in a speech given by American lawyerJames M. Beck, references were made to Lazar and the Battle of Kosovo.[151]
The coalition consisted of Serbians, Bosnians, Croatians, Hungarians, Wallachians, Bulgarians, and Albanians.
But there were also certainly Bosnians and Albanians, who were Christian at the time, among the Christian fighters
From its very inception the myth of Kosovo and its poetic, literary, religious, and philosophical exegesis was intertwined with political agendas and ideologies....
Contemporary Albanian political mythology is very similar in power, focus and methods to Serbian political mythology about Kosovo. Combined, they make a powerful clash point, a war of the myths which ended in violence and armed conflict. The Albanian myth prevailed.