| Korean martial arts | |
| Hangul | 무술; 무예; 무도 |
|---|---|
| Hanja | 武術; 武藝; 武道 |
| RR | musul; muye; mudo |
| MR | musul; muye; mudo |
Korean martial arts (Korean: 무술musul or 무예muye or 무도mudo) are fighting practices and methods that developed on theKorean Peninsula through its history, marked by frequent warfare and foreign invasions. They were later adapted for military training, self-defense, sport, cultural preservation, and personal development. They include both unarmed and armed disciplines and reflect a mix of indigenous traditions and outside influences, particularly from China and Japan.
Evidence of martial practices in Korea can be traced back to early history, including depictions of wrestling inGoguryeo tomb murals from the 4th to 6th centuries. During theGoryeo andJoseon dynasties, martial skills were organized for military use, most notably in manuals such as theMuyedobotongji (1795).
Many modern Korean martial arts were formed or reorganized in the 20th century, particularly following theJapanese occupation of Korea (1910–1945). This period disrupted many indigenous martial traditions while also shaping modern training methods, terminology, and structures. As a result, the historical continuity of some systems remains debated.
Notable Korean martial arts includetaekwondo,hapkido,ssireum, andtaekkyon, while armed traditions includeKorean archery (gungdo),swordsmanship (kumdo). In November 2011, taekkyon was added to UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity list.[1]
In Korean sources, several terms are used to describe martial practices[2]:
Musul (Hangul: 무술;hanja: 武術), litter “martial techniques”, refers to methods of actual combat. Historically, the term was used broadly to describe practical fighting skills, including unarmed techniques and weapons use. Musul emphasizes technical application rather than moral or philosophical development, and it did not refer to standardized systems in the modern sense.
Muye (무예; 武藝), often translated as “martial arts,” refers to martial skills cultivated for military service or security roles, often within a formal training environment. The term appears in classical military manuals such as the Muyedobotongji.
Mudo (무도; 武道), meaning “martial way,” is a modern term in Korea, influenced by the Japanese concept ofbudō in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It describes martial practice as a path of moral, physical, and personal development. Today, mudo is used for modern martial arts that emphasize character education alongside technical training.
Historically, Korean martial practices were shaped mainly by military needs and state institutions rather than by a hereditary warrior class[3]. During theJoseon dynasty, long periods of relative stability and the dominance ofNeo-Confucianism reduced the social status of martial pursuits. These practices became largely confined to the military and state service[4]. As a result, martial training tended to be changed, revised, or abandoned according to changing political and military conditions.[5]
From the late 19th century through the mid-20th century, the collapse of Joseon and social upheaval further disrupted martial transmission. TheJapanese occupation, theKorean War, and thedivision of Korea changed how martial practices were taught, preserved, and reorganized.[6]
These conditions made it difficult for individual schools or lineages to survive over time.[7] Therefore, much of premodern Korean martial traditions survive only in fragments.
Early Korean tribes and later states developed in a context of frequent warfare and territorial conflict.
Wrestling, known as ssireum (씨름), is generally considered the oldest form of ground fighting in Korea. It was practiced as physical training and as popular recreation.
Unarmed practices formed part of broader martial activity, and weapons were often seen as extensions of empty-hand techniques. These activities were not limited to soldiers and were also common among civilians. They were often performed during village festivals and combined with dance, masks, acrobatics, and competitive games. Martial activity also served as a form of basic physical education.
However, throughout their history, Koreans relied more heavily on bows and arrows in warfare than they did on close-range weapons.[8]The composite bow was the primary battlefield weapon, and military training focused more on ranged combat and discipline. This emphasis on archery strongly influenced the development of Korean martial traditions.
Most evidence for early martial practices comes from archaeological remains, such as tomb murals from the Goguryeo period[9], and later historical sources rather than detailed instructional texts. As a result, their specific techniques and training methods are not well documented. These early practices became more visible in historical records during the Three Kingdoms period.
During theThree Kingdoms period (57 BCE–668 CE),Goguryeo,Baekje, andSilla were often in conflict with one another. Therefore, martial practices were important in both military and civilian life. These included unarmed activities such as armed skills like swordsmanship, spear fighting, archery, horseback riding but also unarmed combat like ssireum andsubak (수박, 手搏).
Subak refers to a category of unarmed combat practices that emphasized upright fighting using strikes and grappling. It was practiced by both soldiers and civilians[10] and appears in historical records as a general term rather than a clearly defined martial art. Because descriptions are limited, the exact techniques and methods of subak during this period are not known. Some scholars have noted similarities between subak and Chinese unarmed combat practices such as shoubo (手搏)[11]. This suggests possible influence through cultural exchange, but the exact relationship remains uncertain.
Martial practices during this period were also influenced by institutions. During the Silla period (57 BCE–935 CE), theHwarang were an elite youth group that emphasized classical education, ritual practice, moral education, loyalty, and physical training[12]. They are associated with martial activity and sometimes credited with contributing to theunification of the peninsula by Silla in the 7th century[13]. Surviving historical sources do not describe a formalized martial arts system. As a result, the actual martial role of the Hwarang’s and their influence in the development of later martial traditions is debated.[13][14]
During the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392), martial practices were closely linked to military service and social advancement. The kingdom faced repeated threats, including invasions by theKhitan,Jurchen, and laterMongols, as well as raids byJapanese pirates. These conflicts made practical fighting ability highly valued[15]. Archery and cavalry continued to dominate battlefield tactics, but unarmed combat, especially subak, was also valued for training, competition, and display. Subak competitions (subakhui) were popular and sometimes patronized by the royal court, with kings reportedly taking part in demonstration[16]. Skilled fighters could gain social or political advancement.
Although no manuals from this period survive, Goryeo represents a period of continuity and gradual formalization of earlier martial traditions before the more documented Joseon era.
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During the Joseon dynasty, martial practices were shaped by both external threats and internal ideological priorities. The state new ideologyNeo-Confucianism emphasized civil scholarship over military pursuits, but martial training remained necessary for national defense. This tensions resulted in uneven state support for martial activities.[17]
During the 1592–1598Japanese invasions of Korea, Korea received help fromChina and was exposed both to Japanese and China military practices . In 1593, Korean troops encountered the Chinese military manual titledJi Xiao Xin Shu (紀效新書), written by the Chinese military strategistQi Jiguang.King Seonjo (1567–1608) took a personal interest in the book and promoted it. This led to the creation of theMuyejebo (무예제보;武藝諸譜) in 1599 by Han Gyo, who had studied the use of several weapons with the Chinese army. Soon this book was revised into theMuyesinbo (무예신보;武藝新譜), and expanded into the illustratedMuyedobotongji (1790). This manual is considered a key source for late Joseon military practices.[18]
The Muyedobotongji documents eighteen martial disciplines, mostly weapon-based such as sword, spear, staff, flail, archery, and mounted combat. Unarmed techniques appear under the termKwonbeop (권법; 拳法) and play a limited role compared to weapon training. Kwonbeop is the Korean rendition of the Chinese termQuan fa.[19]
While archery remained important, Joseon forces also quickly adoptedfirearms introduced by the invading Japanese armies, integrating matchlock weapons alongside traditional bows.
Starting from the 17th century aside from the Japanese andManchu invasions, Joseon experienced long periods of relative peace, which reduced the practical role of martial training. References to subak decline after the 15th century, suggesting diminished official recognition. Some unarmed practices increasingly took the form of competitive activities during folk festivals. Taekkyon, for instance, often regarded as Korea’s oldest surviving martial art, appears in late 18th-century sources[20].
In the late 19th century, amid modernization efforts,Emperor Gojong introduced reforms that included foreign military instruction. In 1899, Emperor Gojong, with the encouragement of the visitingPrince Heinrich of Prussia, establishedgungdo as an official sport.[21]
During the occupation period, many Korean martial practices were suppressed or discouraged. At the same time, Japanese martial arts—includingjudo andkendo—were actively promoted through the education system, police training, and military institutions. As a result, Japanese martial disciplines became widespread among Koreans, influencing both training methods and organizational structures[22].
Despite these restrictions, certain indigenous practices survived.Ssireum (traditional wrestling) andgungdo (Korean archery) continued to be practiced, often in informal settings or as part of cultural festivals. Both arts experienced renewed popularity during this period and established formal federations in 1920[23], which continue to exist today. In contrast, other traditional martial practices such as taekkyon declined sharply and came close to disappearing entirely.[24]
After Korea’s liberation in 1945, martial arts developed in a context of reconstruction, political change, and strong nationalism. During this period, Japanese martial arts such askarate,judo, andkendo were already widespread due to the colonial education system, while Chinese martial arts had a more limited influence.[25]
In the immediate postwar period, these practices were taught under various names, includingTang Soo Do,Kong Soo Do, Kwon Bop[26]... Many new Korean martial arts systems later emerged by adapting these practices and reorganizing them to fit modern needs.Taekwondo andHapkido became the most prominent of these arts[27]. Although their techniques were largely influenced by Japanese martial arts, their founders emphasized Korean identity and historical continuity, often through terminology, symbolism, and naming.
Behind the development of Taekwondo and Hapkido, several hybrid martial arts also appeared, includingHwa Rang Do,Hankido,Kuk Sool... These systems blended elements from various sources and reflected experimentation during this period.
From the 1960s to the 1970s, South Korea’s military governments actively supported certain martial arts, particularly Taekwondo. In the context ofthe Cold War,the division of the Peninsula, and tensions with North Korea, martial arts were promoted for military training, national discipline, and international recognition. Taekwondo was standardized, institutionalized, and promoted as a national sport[28], eventually becoming an Olympic discipline.
At the same time, interest grew in older indigenous practices. Taekkyon, which had nearly disappeared, experienced a revival through the efforts ofSong Deok-gi (송덕기; 1893–1987), the last Taekkyon practitioner of the Joseon dynasty. In 1983, Song was designated a holder of anImportant Intangible Cultural Property, making Taekkyon the first Korean martial art to receive official cultural recognition. In 2011, Taekkyon was inscribed on UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity list.
After Korea’s liberation, new martial arts developed as masters experimented with different styles and created systems suited to modern needs. Over time, some schools began emphasizing connections to traditional Korean martial arts and cultural heritage, though in many cases these links were largely symbolic rather than based on continuous practice
Taekwondo (Korean: 태권도; Hanja: 跆拳道) is the national sport of both Koreas and an Olympic sport Taekwondo is the national sport of both Koreas. It is arguably the most recognized of the Korean martial arts.[29]. It is a stand-up martial art known for its fast, high, and varied kicking techniques, jumps, and, to a lesser extent, hand strikes.
Modern taekwondo developed gradually after Korea’s liberation and the Korean War through the efforts of Tang Soo Do masters. Its name “Taekwondo”, meaning “the way of the foot and fist,” was inspired by taekkyeon and claims a connection to it[30], though the art developed largely independently. After the war, several independent martial arts schools, orkwans, operated across Korea. In the 1960s and 1970s, efforts to unify them produced a standardized system that forms the basis of modern Taekwondo[31]. While GeneralChoi Hong-hi (최홍희; 1918–2002) named the art[30] and contributed to its technical framework, taekwondo was shaped collectively by multiple instructors and schools.[32]
The modern curriculum includes striking and kicking techniques, blocks, footwork, jumps, forms (poomsae), sparring, and, in some styles, limited joint locks, throws, and self-defense techniques. Training often combines physical conditioning with mental discipline and, in some schools, elements of traditional Korean culture.
Taekwondo eventually split into two main international organizations: theInternational Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF), founded by Choi in 1966, andWorld Taekwondo (WT), established in 1973[33] as the governing body for Olympic-style competition. TheKukkiwon, founded in 1972 in Seoul, serves as the headquarters for WT Taekwondo and manages standardized training, belt promotion, and certification worldwide.[34]
It has been estimated that there are more than 50 million Taekwondo practitioners worldwide. Since 1988, taekwondo has been included in the Olympic Games, which has contributed to its phenomenal growth and popularity.[35]
Hapkido (합기도 / 合氣道) developed in the mid-20th century, following the end of Japanese colonial rule. It emphasizes self-defense through a combination of joint locks, throws, strikes, and circular movement, and is known for integrating both unarmed and weapon-based techniques.
Though its origins are unclear, Hapkido is associated with Choi Yong-sul (최용술; 1904–1986), who began teaching in Korea after the Korean War. Choi had spent several decades in Japan, where he studiedDaitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, and his teachings formed the foundation of the art.[36][37] Several of Choi’s students, includingJi Han-jae (지한재; 1936-2026) andKim Moo-hong (김무홍; 1915–1984), helped systematize and promote Hapkido, including the development of its kicking techniques[38]. Because of its early development by different instructors, Hapkido has no single standard curriculum, and training varies among schools and organizations.[39]
Taekkyon (택견 or 태껸) is one of Korea’s oldest traditional martial arts[40]. It is a fighting system known for its fluid, rhythmic, and dance‑like movements. It emphasizes footwork (pumbalbgi), kicks, trips, throws, and unbalancing techniques.
While difficult to fully retrace, Taekkyon has a recorded history dating back at least to the 18th century. During the Joseon period, it was widely practiced both as a combat technique by militaries and security forces and as a folk game among common people.[41]
During the Japanese occupation, indigenous martial traditions were suppressed, and Taekkyeon was nearly wiped out. After the Korean War, most traditional practice had disappeared.Song Deok‑gi (1893-1987) was the last master to preserve pre-war Taekkyon.[42]
After decades of obscurity, efforts to revive the art succeeded. On June 1, 1983, Taekkyeon was designatedImportant Intangible Cultural Property No. 76 by the South Korean government, the first Korean martial art with this status. In November 2011, it was inscribed onUNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, becoming the first martial art to receive that distinction.[43][44][45]
Ssireum (씨름) is probably the oldest martial discipline of Korea, with roots in antiquity. It involves two competitors grappling while holding a cloth belt (satba) tied around the waist and thigh, aiming to throw the opponent to the ground. Matches are held on a sand arena, a defining feature of the sport.[46]
Historically, ssireum was a very popular folk game and a form of physical training, commonly practiced during festivals and seasonal celebrations. Unlike many other martial arts, ssireum survived into the modern era with relatively clear continuity and was formalized as a modern sport in the 20th century.
Modern ssireum is divided into weight categories traditionally named after mountains—Taebaek,Geumgang,Halla, andBaekdu, progressing from lighter to heavier weight classes.[47]
Today, ssireum is officially recognized as an important element of Korean cultural heritage. In 2017, it was designated anImportant Intangible Cultural Property No. 131 by the South Korean government[48], and in 2018, it was inscribed onUNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists, jointly recognized by both South and North Korea.[49]
Tang Soo Do (당수도 / 唐手道) uses the same Chinese characters once employed for karate, meaning “China Hand”[50]. Tang Soo Do is primarily based on Karate as taught to Koreans during the Japanese occupation, with later indigenous influences. The art emphasizes striking techniques including punches, kicks, and blocks, and combines self-defense, physical conditioning, and sparring.
The first Tang Soo Do school opened in Seoul in 1944 underLee Won-guk (1907-2003)[26]. It became widely practiced after the Liberation, forming the first generation of modern Korean martial arts. Some of the Tang Soo Do masters were instrumental in the development of modern Taekwondo. Before the unification of theKwans in the 1960s–70s, it was sometimes exported internationally as “Korean Karate”. Notable practitioners include actorChuck Norris, who received his first martial arts training in this style[51].
Soo Bahk Do, developed by martial artistHwang Kee (1914-2002) in the 1960's, is a modern branch of Tang Soo Do, inspired in part by Subak and Hwang’s interpretation of the manual Muyedobotongji[52]. Both arts are widely practiced internationally today.
The composite bow (or Gakkung) was Korea’s primary weapon of war for centuries, recorded as early as the 1st century BCE.[53] Korean legends celebrate archery as a symbol of skill and leadership:Go Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo, was said to catch five flies with a single arrow, andPark Hyeokgeose, the first king of Silla, was also reputedly a master archer.
Bows played a central role in Korean warfare. Even after firearms were introduced, archers remained important for their speed, accuracy, and mobility. During the Imjin Wars (1592–1598), Korean archers continued to play a key role in defending the country.
Archery was also a cultural practice. It was part of rituals, military training, and elite education. It symbolized discipline, focus, and the cultivation of both mind and body. During the Japanese occupation, the practice of gungdo was not as severely affected as other martial arts and continued in cultural and educational settings.
Today, traditional Korean archery, known asgungdo (국도), continues as a living art. It was designated National Intangible Cultural Heritage No. 142 in 2020[54]. Korea’s dominance in Olympic archery reflects the enduring cultural importance of the bow and the skill of its practitioners[55].
Korean swordsmanship, known as geom sul (劍術) or geom beop (劍法), has roots in the Three Kingdoms period, though the earliest detailed manuals date to the 17th and 18th centuries. Key sources include theMuyejebo (1610),Muyeshinbo (1759), andMuyedobotongji (1790). These manuals emphasize cutting, thrusting, and footwork for battlefield use rather than dueling, reflecting the influence of Buddhist and Neo-Confucian thought.
During the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897), swords were used both as military weapons and ceremonial symbols, with curved single-handed sabers (to) becoming standard for soldiers. Military manuals organized techniques into sequences or forms (hyeong) for training, while observers noted that swords were part of a broader arsenal including bows, muskets, and polearms.
Korean sword practice was heavily affected by the Japanese occupation during which modern Japanese kendo was introduced askumdo, and influenced police and military instruction[56]. After 1945, efforts to revive historical Korean sword methods led to the development of modern styles such asSib Pal Gi,Shim Gum Do,Hankumdo, Haidong Gumdo... In practice, though, modern Korean sword arts are often a blend: traditional Korean techniques adapted into modern training methods influenced by Japanese kendo.
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