The permanent population of Kiribati is over 119,000 as of the 2020 census, and more than half live onTarawa.[15] There is also a significant number of I-Kiribati forming a diaspora, the largest of which still growing via emigration is probably inNew Zealand; historically, diasporic communities were created through over-population resettlement in the Solomon Islands onGhizo andWagina, and through intermarriage in the United Kingdom and United States. Another country with growing diasporic communities born of recent labour immigration is Australia.[16]
The Gilberts were politically autonomous of each other, more or less, and anywhere else, until annexed as a protectorate in 1892 by the British; they had no political connection then with the Phoenix or Line islands. This annexation was ended in 1979, when Kiribati gained its independence from the United Kingdom, becoming asovereign state in 1979.[17] The sovereign state included the Gilberts, the Phoenix and Line islands and Banaba.[18] The capital,Tarawa,[19][20] now the most populated area, consists of a number of islets, connected by a series ofcauseways. These comprise about half the area ofTarawa Atoll. Prior to its independence the country exportedphosphate, but the mine, on Banaba, is virtually exhausted and no longer viable. The descendants of the Banabans mostly live in exile onRabi in Fiji but are represented in theKiribati Parliament.
Fisheries, subsistence agriculture and the export ofcopra drive much of the economy, particularly on outer islands away from Tarawa. Kiribati is one of theleast developed countries in the world and its government is highly dependent fishing licence fees from foreign fleets and international capital aid to finance infrastructure and other projects. Many families rely on remittances from circular labour migrants (seafarers, agricultural workers, urban service workers). They also work for the government or for private business and non-business organisations, or run trade stores and small private cooperative-like businesses. The government now pays benefits to the unemployed on Tarawa and to the elderly.[21]
As an atoll (and other low-lying island) nation, Kiribati isacutely vulnerable to sea-level rise and climate change. This is in addition to threats from tsunamis since time-immemorial.Addressing climate change has been a central part of its international policy, as a member of theAlliance of Small Island States. In Kiribati, climate change and extreme weather events are predicted to become more frequent. Additionally, existing socio-economic and environmental pressures are intensifying.[25]
The nameKiribati was adopted upon the country's independence in 1979. It is the Gilbertese rendition of Gilberts, the plural of the English name of the nation's main archipelago, theGilbert Islands.[28] It was namedîles Gilbert (French for 'Gilbert Islands') in about 1820 by Russian admiralAdam von Krusenstern[29] and French captainLouis Duperrey,[30] after the BritishcaptainThomas Gilbert. Gilbert and captainJohn Marshall sighted some of the islands in 1788, while charting the "outer passage" route fromPort Jackson toCanton.[31][32][33] Both von Krusenstern's and Duperrey's maps, published in 1824, were written in French.[34]
In French, the Northern Islands were until then calledîles Mulgrave andByron's Island was not part of them. In English, the archipelago, particularly the southern part, was often referred to as theKingsmills in the 19th century, although the nameGilbert Islands was used increasingly, including in theWestern Pacific Order in Council of 1877 and in the Pacific Order of 1893.[35]
The nameGilbert, already in the name of the British protectorate since 1892, was incorporated into the name of the entireGilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (GEIC) from 1916 and was retained after the Ellice Islands became the separate country ofTuvalu in 1976. The spelling of Gilberts in the Gilbertese language asKiribati may be found in books in Gilbertese prepared bymissionaries, but with the meaning of Gilbertese (demonym and language) (see e.g., Hawaiian Board of Missionaries, 1895).[36] The first mention as a dictionary entry of the wordKiribati as the native name of the country was written down in 1952 byErnest Sabatier in his comprehensiveDictionnaire gilbertin–français.[37]
The indigenous name often suggested for the Gilbert Islands proper isTungaru (see e.g.,Ernest Sabatier, 1952–1953, orArthur Grimble, 1989[38]). The renditionKiribati for Gilberts was chosen as the official name of the new independent state by the chief minister, SirIeremia Tabai and hiscabinet, on such grounds that it was modern,[39] and to indicate the inclusion of islands (e.g., thePhoenix andLine Islands), beyond the Tungaru (i.e., Gilbert) chain.[40][c][41]
The area now called Kiribati has been inhabited byAustronesian peoples speaking the sameOceanic language, from north to south, including the southernmostNui, since sometime between 3000 BC[39] and 1300 AD.[42] The area was not completely isolated; later, voyagers fromSamoa,Tonga, andFiji introduced somePolynesian andMelanesian cultural aspects, respectively. Intermarriage and intense navigation between the islands tended to blur cultural differences and resulted in a significant degree of cultural homogenization.[43][44] Local oral historians chiefly in the form of lore keepers suggest that the area was first inhabited by a group of seafaring people fromMelanesia, who were described as being dark-skinned, frizzy-haired, and short in stature. Theseindigenous peoples were then visited by earlyAustronesian seafarers from the west, a place called Matang, orally described as being tall and fair-skinned.
Around AD 1300, a mass departure occurred fromSamoa leading to the addition of Polynesian ancestry into the mix of most Gilbertese people.[45][46][47] These Samoans later brought strong features ofPolynesian languages and culture, creating clans based on their own Samoan traditions and slowly intertwining with the indigenous clans and powers already dominant in Kiribati.
Around the 15th century, starkly contrasting systems of governance arose between the northern islands, primarily under chiefly rule (uea), and the central and southern islands, primarily under the rule of their council of elders (unimwaane).Tabiteuea could be an exception as the sole island that is known as maintaining a traditionalegalitarian society.[48][49]
The name Tabiteuea stems from the root phraseTabu-te-Uea, meaning "chiefs are forbidden".[50] Civil war soon became a factor, with acquisition of land being the main form of conquest. Clans and chiefs began fighting over resources, stimulated by hatred and reignited blood feuds, which had their origins months, years, or even decades before.The turmoil lasted well into the European visitation and colonial era, which led to certain islands decimating their foes with the help of guns and cannon-equipped ships that Europeans provided to some I-Kiribati leaders.[31]
The typical military arms of the I-Kiribati at this time were shark tooth-embedded wooden spears,[51] knives, and swords, and garbs of armour fashioned from dense coconut fibre.[52] They chiefly used these instead of the gunpowder and weapons of steel available at the time, because of the strong sentimental value of the equipment handed down through generations. Ranged weapons, such as bows, slings, and javelins, were seldom used;hand-to-hand combat was a prominent skill still practised today, though seldom mentioned because of various taboos associated with it, secrecy being the primary one.Abemama's High ChiefTembinok' was the last of the dozens of expansionist chiefs of Gilbert Islands of this period,[53] despite Abemama historically conforming to the traditional southern islands' governance of their respectiveunimwaane. He was immortalised inRobert Louis Stevenson's bookIn the South Seas, which delved into the high chief's character and method of rule during Stevenson's stay in Abemama. The 90th anniversary of his arrival in the Gilbert Islands was chosen to celebrate the independence of Kiribati on 12 July 1979.[54]
Chance visits by European ships occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries,[55][56] while those ships attempted circumnavigations of the world, or sought sailing routes from the south to north Pacific Ocean, a passing trade, whaling the On-The-Line grounds,[57][58] and labour ships associated with the coercive labour recruitment practices, known asblackbirding. This recruitment ofKanaka workers in large numbers during the 19th century, had social, economic, political, religious and cultural consequences. More than 9,000 workers were sent abroad from 1845 to 1895, most of them not returning.[39][59]
The passing trade gave rise to European, Indian, Chinese, Samoan, and other residents from the 1830s; they includedbeachcombers, castaways,[60][61][62][63] traders, and missionaries. DrHiram Bingham II of theAmerican Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) arrived onAbaiang in 1857. The Roman Catholic faith was introduced onNonouti around 1880 by 2 Gilbert islanders, Betero and Tiroi, who had become Christians in Tahiti. Father Joseph Leray, Father Edward Bontemps and Brother Conrad Weber, Roman CatholicMissionaries of the Sacred Heart arrived on Nonouti in 1888.[64] The Protestant missionaries of theLondon Missionary Society (LMS) were also active in the southern Gilberts. On 15 October 1870, Rev. Samuel James Whitmee of the LMS arrived atArorae, and later that month he visitedTamana,Onotoa andBeru.[65] In August 1872,George Pratt of the LMS visited the islands.[66]
Declaration of a protectorate onAbemama by CaptainEHM Davis, 27 May 1892
The conduct ofWilliam Telfer Campbell, the second resident commissioner of the Gilberts and Ellice Islands of 1896 to 1908, was criticised as to his legislative, judicial and administrative management (including allegations of forced labour exacted from islanders) and became the subject of the 1909 report byArthur Mahaffy.[71] In 1913, an anonymous correspondent toThe New Age newspaper described the maladministration of W. Telfer Campbell and challenged the impartiality of Arthur Mahaffy, because he was a former colonial official in the Gilberts.[72] The anonymous correspondent also criticised the operations of thePacific Phosphate Company on Banaba.[72]
In 1902, thePacific Cable Board laid the first trans-Pacific telegraph cable fromBamfield, British Columbia, toFanning Island (Tabuaeran) in the Line Islands, and from Fiji to Fanning Island, thus completing theAll Red Line, a series of telegraph lines circumnavigating the globe completely within the British Empire. The location of Fanning Island, one of the closest formations to Hawaii, led to its annexation by the British Empire in 1888. Nearby candidates includingPalmyra Island were not favoured due to the lack of adequate landing sites.[76]
The United States eventually incorporated the Northern Line Islands into its territories, and did the same with thePhoenix Islands, which lie between Gilberts and the Line Islands, includingHowland,Jarvis, andBaker islands, thus causing a territorial dispute. That was eventually resolved and they finally became part of Kiribati under theTreaty of Tarawa.[77]
American Marines assault a Japanese bunker during theBattle of Tarawa, November 1943
After theattack on Pearl Harbor, duringWorld War II,Butaritari and Tarawa, and others of the Northern Gilbert group, wereoccupied by Japan from 1941 to 1943.Betio became an airfield and supply base. The expulsion of the Japanese forces in late 1943 involved one of the bloodiest battles inUS Marine Corps history. Marines landed in November 1943 and theBattle of Tarawa ensued. As the headquarters of the colony, Banaba was bombed, evacuated and occupied by Japan in 1942 and not freed until 1945, after the massacre of all but one of the Gilbertese on the island by the Japanese forces.Funafuti then hosted the provisional headquarters of the colony from 1942 to 1946, when Tarawa returned to host the headquarters.[78]
At the end of 1945, most of the remaining inhabitants of Banaba, repatriated fromKosrae,Nauru and Tarawa, were relocated toRabi Island, an island of Fiji that the British government had acquired in 1942 for this purpose.[79]
Institutions of internal self-rule were established on Tarawa from about 1967. The Ellice Islands requested their separation from the rest of the colony in 1974 and were granted their own internal self-rule institutions. The separation entered into force on 1 January 1976. In 1978, the Ellice Islands became the independent state ofTuvalu.[41]
The Gilbert Islands gained independence as the Republic of Kiribati on 12 July 1979.[82] Then, in September, the United States relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabitedPhoenix and Line Islands, in a 1979 treaty of friendship with Kiribati (ratified in 1983).[83] Although the indigenousGilbertese name for the Gilbert Islands proper is "Tungaru", the new state chose the name "Kiribati", the Gilbertese spelling of "Gilberts", because it was more modern and as an equivalent of the former colony to acknowledge the inclusion of Banaba, the Line Islands, and thePhoenix Islands. The last two archipelagoes were never initially occupied by Gilbertese until the British authorities, and later the republic's government, resettled Gilbertese there under resettlement schemes.[41][84] In 1982, the firstelections since independence were held. A no-confidence vote provoked anotherelection in 1983. In the post-independence period,overcrowding has been an issue, at least in British and aid organisations' eyes. In 1988, an announcement was made that 4,700 residents of the main island group would be resettled onto less populated islands. In September 1994,Teburoro Tito from the opposition was elected president.[85]
In 1995, Kiribati unilaterally moved theInternational Date Line far to the east to encompass the Line Islands group, so that the country would no longer be divided by the date line. The move, which fulfilled one of President Tito's campaign promises, was intended to allow businesses across the expansive territory to keep the same business week. This also enabled Kiribati to become the first country to see the dawn of thethird millennium, an event of significance for tourism. Tito was re-elected in 1998. In 1999, Kiribati became a full member of the United Nations, 20 years after independence.[86] In 2002, Kiribati passed a controversial law that enabled the government to shut down newspaper publishers. The legislation followed the launching of Kiribati's first successful non-government-run newspaper. President Tito was re-elected in 2003 but was removed from office in March 2003 by a no-confidence vote and replaced by a Council of State.Anote Tong of the opposition partyBoutokaan Te Koaua was elected to succeed Tito in July 2003. He was re-elected in 2007 and in 2011.[87]
In June 2008, Kiribati officials asked Australia and New Zealand to accept Kiribati citizens as permanent refugees. Kiribati is expected to be the first country to lose all its land territory toclimate change. In June 2008, Kiribati President Anote Tong said that the country had reached "the point of no return." He added, "To plan for the day when you no longer have a country is indeed painful but I think we have to do that."[88][89][90][91]
In January 2012, Anote Tong was re-elected for a third and last successive term. In early 2012, the government of Kiribati acquired the 2,200-hectare Natoavatu Estate on the second largest island of Fiji,Vanua Levu. At the time it was widely reported[92][93][94] that the government planned to evacuate the entire population of Kiribati to Fiji. In April 2013, President Tong began urging citizens to evacuate the islands and migrate elsewhere.[95] In May 2014, the Office of the President confirmed the purchase of some 5,460 acres of land on Vanua Levu at a cost of 9.3 million Australian dollars.[96]
In March 2016,Taneti Maamau waselected and took office as the fifth President of Kiribati.[97] In June 2020, President Maamau wonre-election for a second four-year term. President Maamau was considered pro-China and he supported closer ties with Beijing.[98] On 16 November 2021, the Kiribati government announced it would open the world's largest marine protected area to commercial fishing. The2022 Kiribati constitutional crisis started with the suspension of all five major justices of thejudiciary of Kiribati.[99]
In 2020,Kiribati's response to the COVID-19 pandemic, consistent with most of theCOVID-19 responses of Oceania island nations, was to impose strict limits on tourism and commercial travel. Kiribati reported that it remained essentially COVID-free (two cases) until January 2022 when the first commercial international flight in two years included 36 passengers who tested positive. In 2024, 5,085 Coronavirus Cases were reported which caused 24 deaths, while 2,703 were reported to have recovered.[100]On 29 January 2023, Kiribati confirmed its intention to rejoin thePacific Islands Forum, ending a bitter two-year leadership split.
The executive branch consists of apresident (te Beretitenti), avice-president and acabinet. The president, who is also chief of the cabinet, is directly elected by the citizens, after the legislature nominates three or four persons from among its members to be candidates in the ensuing presidential election. The president is limited to serving three four-year terms, and remains a member of the assembly. The cabinet is composed of the president, vice-president, and 13 ministers (appointed by the president) who are alsomembers of parliament.[102]
The legislative branch is the unicameralManeaba ni Maungatabu (House of Assembly). Its members are elected, including by constitutional mandate, a nominated representative of theBanaban people inRabi Island,Fiji (Banaba, former Ocean Island), in addition to, until 2016, the attorney general, who served as anex officio member from 1979 to 2016. Legislators serve for a four-year term.[103]
The constitutional provisions governing administration of justice are similar to those in other former British colonies in that the judiciary is free from governmental interference. Thejudicial branch is made up of the High Court (in Betio) and the Court of Appeal.[102] The president appoints the presiding judges.[103]
Local government is through island councils with elected members. Local affairs are handled in a manner similar to town meetings in colonial America. Island councils make their own estimates of revenue and expenditure[102] and generally are free from central government controls. There are a total of 21 inhabited islands in Kiribati. Each inhabited island has its own council. Kiribati is currently divided into 5 districts: Northern Kiribati, Central Kiribati, Southern Kiribati, South Tarawa, and Line & Phoenix.[104]
Kiribati has formal political parties but their organisation is quite informal.[105] Ad hoc opposition groups tend to coalesce around specific issues. There is universal suffrage at age 18.[102] Today the main political parties are theBoutokaan Kiribati Moa Party, formerBoutokaan te Koaua, andTobwaan Kiribati Party.[106][107]
Kiribati maintains close relations with its Pacific neighbours, Australia, New Zealand, Japan and Fiji. The first three of these provide the bulk of the country's foreign aid.Taiwan and Japan also have specified-period licences to fish in Kiribati's waters.[102] There are three resident diplomatic missions headquartered in Tarawa: the Embassies of theRepublic of China (Taiwan) until 2019, replaced byPeople's Republic of China in 2020; and the High Commissions ofAustralia andNew Zealand. Since 2022, there have been talks of opening aUS Embassy.[108][109] The current U.S. Embassy responsible for Kiribati is located in Suva,Fiji.[110]
In November 1999, Kiribati agreed to allow Japan'sNational Space Development Agency to lease land onKiritimati (formerly Christmas Island) for 20 years, on which to build aspaceport.[111] The agreement stipulated that Japan was to pay US$840,000 per year and would also pay for any damage to roads and the environment.[111] A Japanese-built downrangetracking station operates on Kiritimati[112] and an abandoned airfield on the island was designated as the landing strip for a proposed reusable unmanned space shuttle calledHOPE-X. HOPE-X, however, was eventually cancelled by Japan in 2003.[113]
As one of the world's most vulnerable nations to theeffects of global warming, Kiribati has been an active participant in international diplomatic efforts relating to climate change, most importantly theUNFCCC conferences of the parties (COP). Kiribati is a member of theAlliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), an intergovernmental organisation of low-lying coastal and small island countries.Established in 1990, the main purpose of the alliance is to consolidate the voices ofSmall Island Developing States (SIDS) to address global warming. AOSIS has been very active from its inception, putting forward the first draft text in theKyoto Protocol negotiations as early as 1994.[114]
In 2009, President Tong attended theClimate Vulnerable Forum (V11) in theMaldives, with 10 other countries that arevulnerable to climate change, and signed the Bandos Island declaration on 10 November 2009, pledging to show moral leadership and commence greening their economies by voluntarily committing to achievingcarbon neutrality.[115]
In November 2010, Kiribati hosted theTarawa Climate Change Conference (TCCC) to support the president of Kiribati's initiative to hold a consultative forum between vulnerable states and their partners. The conference strove to create an enabling environment for multi-party negotiations under the auspices of the UNFCCC. The conference was a successor event to the Climate Vulnerable Forum.[116] The ultimate objective of TCCC was to reduce the number and intensity of fault lines between parties to the COP process, explore elements of agreement between the parties and thereby to support Kiribati's and other parties' contribution toCOP16 held inCancún, Mexico, from 29 November to 10 December 2010.[citation needed]
In 2013, President Tong spoke of climate-change inducedsea level rise as "inevitable". "For our people to survive, then they will have to migrate. Either we can wait for the time when we have to move people en masse or we can prepare them—beginning from now ..."[117] In New York in 2014, perThe New Yorker, President Tong toldThe New York Times that "according to the projections, within this century, the water will be higher than the highest point in our lands".[118] In 2014, President Tong finalised the purchase of a 20 km2 (7.7 sq mi) stretch of land onVanua Levu, one of the larger Fiji islands, 2,000 km away. A move described by Tong as an "absolute necessity" should the country's territory be completely submerged under water.[119]
In 2013, attention was drawn to a claim of a Kiribati man of being a"climate change refugee" under theConvention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951).[120] However, this claim was determined by the New Zealand High Court to be untenable.[121] The New Zealand Court of Appeal also rejected the claim in a2014 decision.On further appeal, the New Zealand Supreme Court confirmed the earlier adverse rulings against the application for refugee status, but rejected the proposition "that environmental degradation resulting from climate change or other natural disasters could never create a pathway into the Refugee Convention or protected person jurisdiction".[122] In 2017, Kiribati signed the UNtreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[123]
On 20 September 2019, the government of Kiribati restored its diplomatic relationship with the People's Republic of China and simultaneously stopped its diplomatic relationship with Taiwan.[124] China offered a 737 aircraft and ferries to Kiribati for the decision, according to Taiwan's foreign minister,Joseph Wu.[125]
From 1973 until 2008, a total of almost 500US Peace Corps volunteers were based on the Islands, as many as 45 in a given year. Activities included assisting in the planning, design and construction of wells, libraries, and other infrastructure, and agricultural, environmental, and community health education. In 2006, volunteer placement was significantly scaled down due to the reduction of consistent air transportation to the outer islands; it was later ended because the associated ability to provide medical care to volunteers could not be assured.[126][127] In July 2022, USVice President Harris announced plans to build a new embassy in Kiribati and Tonga and reestablish the Peace Corps presence in the region.[128]
Law enforcement in Kiribati is carried out by the Kiribati Police Service, which is responsible for all law enforcement and paramilitary duties for the island nation. There are police posts located on all of the islands. The police have one patrol boat, theGuardian-classpatrol boatRKSTeanoai II.[129]
The main prison in Kiribati is located inBetio, named the Walter Betio Prison. There is also a prison inLondon onKiritimati.[130]
Malehomosexuality is illegal in Kiribati, with a penalty up to 14 years in prison, according to a historical British law. However, this law is not enforced. Kiribati has not yet followed the lead of the United Kingdom, following itsWolfenden report, to decriminalise acts of male homosexuality, beginning with provisions in the UK's Sexual Offences Act 1957. Female homosexuality is legal, but lesbians may face violence and discrimination. However, employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is prohibited.[131][132]
There are 21 inhabited islands in Kiribati. Kiribati can be geographically divided into threearchipelagoes or groups of islands, which have no administrative functions. They are:
Four of the former districts (including Tarawa) lie in the Gilbert Islands, where most of the country's population lives. Five of the Line Islands are uninhabited (Malden Island,Starbuck Island,Millennium Island,Vostok Island andFlint Island). The Phoenix Islands are uninhabited except forKanton, and have no representation. Banaba itself is sparsely inhabited now. There is also a non-elected representative of the Banabans onRabi Island in Fiji.[134]
Each of the 21 inhabited islands[11] has its own local council that takes care of daily affairs. There is one council for each inhabited island, with two exceptions: Tarawa Atoll has three councils:Betio Town Council,Teinainano Urban Council [it] (TUC) (for the rest ofSouth Tarawa) and Eutan Tarawa Council (ETC) (forNorth Tarawa); andTabiteuea has two councils.[135]
Kiribati with its surrounding EEZs in dark gray, noting the three non-contiguous territoriesMap of KiribatiProvinces of KiribatiCoconut palms in Abaiang
Kiribati consists of32 atolls and one solitary island (Banaba), extending into the eastern and westernhemispheres, as well as the northern and southern hemispheres. Its extensiveexclusive economic zone (EEZ) covers three, non-contiguous, traditional geographic subregions: Banaba (Melanesian-Micronesian area), the Gilbert Islands (Micronesia) and theLine and Phoenix Islands (Polynesia).[11] The groups of islands are:
Banaba: an isolated island betweenNauru and the Gilbert Islands
Gilbert Islands: sixteen atolls located approximately 1,500 kilometres (932 mi) north ofFiji
Phoenix Islands: eight atolls and coral islands located approximately 1,800 kilometres (1,118 mi) southeast of the Gilberts
Line Islands: eight atolls and one reef, located approximately 3,300 kilometres (2,051 mi) east of the Gilberts
Banaba (or Ocean Island) is araised-coral island. It was once a rich source ofphosphates, but was exhausted in mining before independence.[136][137] The rest of the land in Kiribati consists of the sand and reef rock islets of atolls or coral islands, which rise only one or two meters above sea level.[138]
The soil is thin andcalcareous. It has a low water-holding capacity and low organic matter and nutrient content—except for calcium, sodium, and magnesium. Banaba is one of the least suitable places for agriculture in the world.[139]
Kiritimati (previously Christmas Island) in the Line Islands has the largest land area of any atoll in the world. Based on a 1995 realignment of theInternational Date Line, the Line Islands were the first area to enter into a new year, including the year 2000. For that reason, Caroline Island was renamedMillennium Island in 1997.[140]
According to thePacific Regional Environment Programme (previously South Pacific Regional Environment Programme), two small uninhabited Kiribati islets,Tebua Tarawa andAbanuea, disappeared underwater in 1999.[141] The sea level atChristmas Island, in the 50 years between 1972 and 2022, has risen 5 cm (2.0 in).[142] The United NationsIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that sea levels will rise by approximately 50 cm (20 in) by 2100 due toglobal warming and a further rise would be inevitable. It is thus likely that within a century the nation's arable land will become subject to increasedsoil salination and will be largely submerged.[143]
The exposure of Kiribati to changes in sea levels is exacerbated by thePacific decadal oscillation, which is a climate switch phenomenon that results in changes from periods ofLa Niña to periods ofEl Niño. This has an effect on sea levels. For example, in 2000, there was a switch from periods of downward pressure of El Niño on sea levels to an upward pressure of La Niña on sea levels, which upward pressure causes more frequent and higher high tide levels. ThePerigean spring tide (often called aking tide) can result in seawater flooding low-lying areas of the islands of Kiribati.[144]
Theatolls andreef islands can respond to changes in sea-level. Paul Kench at theUniversity of Auckland in New Zealand and Arthur Webb at theSouth Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission in Fiji released a study in 2010 on the dynamic response of atolls and reef islands in the central Pacific. Kiribati was mentioned in the study, and Webb and Kench found that the three major urbanised islands in Kiribati—Betio, Bairiki and Nanikai—increased by 30% (36 hectares), 16.3% (5.8 hectares) and 12.5% (0.8 hectares), respectively.[145][146][147][148][149]
The study by Paul Kench and Arthur Webb recognises that the islands are extremely vulnerable to sea level rise, and concluded that: "This study did not measure vertical growth of the island surface nor does it suggest there is any change in the height of the islands. Since land height has not changed the vulnerability of the greater part of the land area of each island to submergence due to sea level rise is also unchanged and these low-lying atolls remain immediately and extremely vulnerable to inundation or sea water flooding."[146]
The Climate Change in the Pacific Report of 2011 describes Kiribati as having a low risk ofcyclones.[150] In March 2015 Kiribati experienced flooding and destruction of seawalls and coastal infrastructure as the result ofCyclone Pam, a Category 5 cyclone that devastatedVanuatu.[151] Kiribati remains exposed to the risk that cyclones can strip the low-lying islands of their vegetation and soil.[152]
Gradual sea-level rise also allows for coralpolyp activity to raise the atolls with the sea level. However, if the increase in sea level occurs at a rate faster than coral growth, or if polyp activity is damaged byocean acidification, then the resilience of the atolls and reef islands is less certain.[153]
The Human Rights Measurement Initiative[154] finds that the climate crisis has worsened human rights conditions moderately (4.8 out of 6) in Kiribati.[155] Human rights experts reported that the climate crisis has compromised access to food and clean water, as well as women's rights, housing security and cultural integrity.[155]
TheKiribati Adaptation Program (KAP), started in 2003, is a US$5.5 million initiative that was originally enacted by the national government of Kiribati with the support of theGlobal Environment Facility (GEF), theWorld Bank, theUnited Nations Development Program, and the Japanese government. Australia later joined the coalition, donating US$1.5 million to the effort. The program aims to take place over six years, supporting measures that reduce Kiribati's vulnerability to the effects ofclimate change and sea level rise by raising awareness of climate change, assessing and protecting available water resources, and managing inundation.At the start of the Adaptation Program, representatives from each of the inhabited atolls identified key climatic changes that had taken place over the past 20–40 years and proposed coping mechanisms to deal with these changes under four categories of urgency of need. The program is now focusing on the country's most vulnerable sectors in the most highly populated areas.Initiatives include improving water supply management in and around Tarawa;coastal management protection measures such as mangrove re-plantation and protection of public infrastructure; strengthening laws to reduce coastal erosion; and population settlement planning to reduce personal risks.[156]
The government has taken specific action to ensurefood security, as sea level rise, drought, and overfishing have created food and water shortages. This has involved diversifying food sources and ensuring existing resources are managed sustainably.[157]
The issue ofplastic pollution has also been a key challenge for Kiribati as it hurts both its marine biodiversity and its economy that relies primarily on fisheries; it also impairs prospects for a tourism industry.[158] As a result, the government of Kiribati, more specifically the Environment and Conservation Division (ECD) which forms part of the Kiribati Government's Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development, has made efforts to tackle this issue nationally through environment acts and state policy papers.[158] To a further extent, it has also recognized the global nature of plastic pollution, and consequently, has promoted international cooperation and multilateral solutions.[159] This is notably observable during the current negotiations of theGlobal Plastic Pollution Treaty planned to be finally drafted by the end of 2024.[160]
A tropical islet with palm fronds oriented in the direction of the prevailing winds
Kiribati has atropical rainforest climate (Af). From April to October, there are predominant northeastern winds and stable temperatures close to 30 °C (86 °F). From November to April, western gales bring rain.
The Kiribati wet season (te Auu-Meang), also known as thetropical cyclone (TC) (te Angibuaka) season, starts from November to April every year. Kiribati therefore typically experiences more extreme weather events associated withtropical disturbances or tropical cyclones duringte Auu-Meang. Tropical cyclones rarely develop or pass along the equator where Kiribati is located, but Kiribati has historically been impacted by distant tropical cyclones. The impacts were observed while the systems were still in their development stages (Tropical Low/disturbance) or even before they reached Tropical cyclone category.[citation needed]
The fair season starts whenTen Rimwimata (Antares) appears in the sky after sunset, from May to November, when more gentle winds and currents and less rain. Then towards December, whenNei Auti (Pleiades) replaces Antares, the season of sudden westerly winds and more heavy rain discourages any far travel from island to island.[161]
Kiribati does not experience cyclones but effects may occasionally be experienced during cyclone seasons affecting nearby Pacific Island countries such as Fiji.[11][43][139]
Precipitation varies significantly between islands. For example, the annual average is 3,000 mm (120 in) in the north and 500 mm (20 in) in the south of the Gilbert Islands.[43] Most of these islands are in the dry belt of the equatorial oceanic climatic zone and experience prolonged droughts.[139]
Because of the relatively young geological age of the islands and atolls and the high level ofsoil salination, the flora of Kiribati is somewhat unhealthy. The Gilbert Islands contain about 83 indigenous and 306 introduced plants, whereas the corresponding numbers for Line and Phoenix Islands are 67 and 283. None of these species areendemic, and about half of the indigenous ones have a limited distribution and have become endangered or nearly extinct due to human activities such as phosphate mining.[164]
Coconut,pandanus palms andbreadfruit trees are the most commonwild plants,[165][43] whereas the five most cultivated crops but the traditionalBabai,Cyrtosperma merkusii,[166] are importedChinese cabbage, pumpkin, tomato, watermelon and cucumber.[167] Over eighty percent of the population participates in either farming or fishing.[168]
Seaweed farming is an important part of the economy[why?], with two major speciesEucheuma alvarezii andEucheuma spinosium introduced to the local lagoons from the Philippines in 1977. It competes with a collection of the black-lipped pearl oyster (Pinctada margaritifera) and shellfish,[169] which are dominated by the strombid gastropod (Strombus luhuanus) and Anadara cockles (Anadara uropigimelana), whereas the stocks of the giant clam (Tridacna gigas) have been largely exhausted.[170]
Kiribati has a few land mammals, none being indigenous or endemic. They include the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), dogs, cats and pigs. Among the 75 bird species, theBokikokiko (Acrocephalus aequinoctialis) is endemic toKiritimati.[164]
There are 600–800 species of inshore and pelagic finfish, some 200 species of corals and about 1000 species of shellfish.[171][172] Fishing mostly targets the familyScombridae, particularly theskipjack tuna andyellowfin tuna as well asflying fish (Cypselurus spp.).[173]
Dogs were already accompanying the first inhabitants but were re-introduced by European settlers: they have continued to grow in numbers and are roaming in traditional packs,[174] particularly around South Tarawa.[citation needed]
Kiribati has few natural resources. Commercially viablephosphate deposits onBanaba were exhausted at the time of independence.Copra and fish now represent the bulk of production and exports. Kiribati has the lowest GDP of any sovereign state inOceania, and is considered one of theleast developed countries in the world.[175]
In one form or another, Kiribati gets a large portion of its income from abroad. Examples include fishing licences, development assistance, workers'remittances, especially the seafarers issued fromMarine Training Centre, and a few tourists. Given Kiribati's limited domestic production ability, it must import nearly all of its essential foodstuffs and manufactured items; it depends on these external sources of income for financing.[citation needed]
The economy of Kiribati benefits from international development assistance programs. The multilateral donors providing development assistance in 2009 were theEuropean Union (A$9 million), theUnited Nations Development Programme (A$3.7 million), UNICEF, and theWorld Health Organization (A$100,000).[176] The bilateral donors providing development assistance in 2009 were Australia (A$11 million), Japan (A$2 million), New Zealand (A$6.6 million),Taiwan (A$10.6 million), and other donors providing A$16.2 million, including technical assistance grants from theAsian Development Bank.[176][177]
The major donors in 2010/2011 were Australia (A$15 million), Taiwan (A$11 million); New Zealand (A$6 million), theWorld Bank (A$4 million) and theAsian Development Bank.[178]
In 1956,Gilbert and Ellice Islands established asovereign wealth fund to act as a store of wealth for the country's earnings fromphosphate mining.In 2008, theRevenue Equalization Reserve Fund was valued at US$400 million.[179] The RERF assets declined from A$637 million (420% of GDP) in 2007 to A$570.5 million (350% of GDP) in 2009[176] as the result of the2008 financial crisis and exposure to failed Icelandic banks. In addition, draw-downs were made by the government of Kiribati to finance budgetary shortfalls during this period.[14]
In May 2011, the IMF country report assessment of the economy of Kiribati is that "After two years of contraction, the economy recovered in the second half of 2010 and inflation pressure dissipated. It is estimated to have grown by 1.75% for the year. Despite a weather-related drop in copra production, private sector activity appears to have picked up, especially in retail. Tourist arrivals rebounded by 20% compared to 2009, although from a very low base.Despite the rise in world food and fuel prices, inflation has bounced from 2008 crisis-highs into negative territory, reflecting the strong appreciation of the Australian dollar, which is used as the domestic currency, and a decline in the world price of rice. Credit growth in the overall economy declined in 2009 as economic activity stalled. But it started to pick up in the second half of 2010 as the recovery gained traction".[14]
A major Australian bank,ANZ, maintains a presence on Kiribati[180] with a number of branches andATM units.
Kiribati is a major exporter of hand-caughtornamental fish. There are eight licensed operators based onKiritimati (Christmas Island). At the end of 2005, the number of pet fish exported was 110,000. All operators have a land-based facility but fish are kept in containers on the reef until the day before the shipment. This is to reduce the running cost and the mortality of pet fish to be exported. Theflame angelfish (Centropyge loriculus) is the major species exported.[181]
With the combination of the islands' remote location in the Central Pacific at approximately the International Date Line, and islands spanning hundreds of miles north and south of the equator, communications within the country have always been challenging. Primarily, communication is conducted by radio and print media.TV Kiribati Ltd was owned by the government and operated between 2004 and mid-2012, but could not reach all of the islands. Radio Kiribati, based on Tarawa and operated by the government's Broadcasting and Publications Authority (BPA) on 1440 kHz AM, is the only form of mass media that reaches all the major islands. Transmission hours are limited and local content in Gilbertese is supplemented by English summaries and BBC News.[184] The BPA and a private broadcaster also operate FM stations accessible on Tarawa.[185][186]
Inter-island communications for many years relied on a centralized shortwave radio network operated by Telecom Services Kiribati, Ltd (TSKL) based in each Island's Council Headquarters. Numerous issues including low availability, maintenance, privacy, and only one per island led TSKL to adopt satellite-based telephones. However, the system is more expensive and still only located at Council Headquarters.[186]
Print weeklies in Gilbertese include theTe Uekara published by the government,Te Mauri published by the Kiribati Protestant Church, and theKiribati Independent, published fromAuckland as well as theKiribati Newstar, published in English.[186]
In December 2019, SpaceX launched theKacific1 broadband satellite that provides 100 Mbit/s mobile and broadband service to 25 countries throughout to the Asia-Pacific region including Kiribati.[187] Three of the satellite's 56 spot beams provide overlapping coverage of the Gilbert Islands and Tuvalu; however, the more eastern regions of the country, the Phoenix and Line Islands, are outside of the satellite's coverage.[188]
The Southern Cross NEXT cable system, which entered service in July 2022,[189] connects the US to Australia and provides service to eastern part of Kiribati (Kiritimati island) through the 234-mile (377 km) Kiritimati Branch with one fiber pair. The network, which is an upgrade to the existingSouthern Cross Cable, also connects to Samoa, Fiji, and New Zealand.[190][191]
In June 2021, the World Bank-backed procurement for the East Micronesian Cable system was cancelled due to security concerns. The undersea fiberoptic system, which would have originated inGuam, was "designed to improve the communications in the island nations of Nauru, Kiribati and Federated States of Micronesia (FSM)."[192][193] In January 2023, ministers from the three Pacific island nations signed a joint communiqué for moving forward with the stalled project. Funded by the U.S., Japan and Australia the project is valued at $70 million.[194] In early 2023, it was reported that Kiribati became the first Pacific island country to receiveStarlink services.[195]
The November 2020 census showed a population of 119,940. About 90% lived in theGilbert Islands, with 52.9% of them on South Tarawa, includingBetio, the biggest township.[196]
Until recently, people lived mostly in villages with populations between 50 and 3,000 on the outer islands. Most houses are made of materials obtained from coconut and pandanus trees. Frequent droughts and infertile soil hinder reliable large-scale agriculture, so the islanders have largely turned to the sea for livelihood and subsistence. Most are outrigger sailors and fishermen. Copra plantations serve as a second source of employment. In recent years, large numbers of citizens have moved to the more urban island capital of Tarawa, where Betio is the largest town and South Tarawa reunites larger towns likeBikenibeu orTeaoraereke. South Tarawa's 2024 population is now estimated at 69,710. In 1978, the population of South Tarawa was 17,921.[197]
The native people of Kiribati are calledI-Kiribati. Ethnically, the I-Kiribati areOceanians, a sub-ethnicity ofAustronesians.[198] Recent archaeological evidence indicates that Austronesians originally settled the islands thousands of years ago.[citation needed] Around the 14th century, Fijians, Samoans, and Tongans invaded the islands, thus diversifying the ethnic range and introducingPolynesian linguistic traits. Intermarriage among all ancestral groups, however, has led to a population reasonably homogeneous in appearance and traditions.[102]
The people of Kiribati speakGilbertese, anOceanic language. English is the otherofficial language, but is not used very often outside the island capital ofTarawa. It is more likely that some English words are mixed in their use with Gilbertese. Older generations of I-Kiribati tend to use more complicated versions of the language. Several words in Gilbertese have been adopted from European settlers, for instance,kamea is one of the Gilbertese words for dog,kiri being the Oceanic one,[199] which has its origins in the I-Kiribati people hearing the European settlers saying "come here" to their dogs, and adopting that askamea.[200]
Many otherloanwords have been adopted (likebuun, spoon,moko, smoke,beeki, pig,batoro, bottle) but some typical Gilbertese words are quite common, even for Western objects (likewanikiba, plane – the flying canoe,rebwerebwe, motorbike – for the motor noise,kauniwae, shoes – the cow for the feet).[citation needed]
Prevalence of obesity in the adult population, top countries (2016), Kiribati has the seventh highest rate in the world.
TheGilbert Islands where 90% of the Kiribati population live, boast some of the highest population densities in the Pacific, rivalling cities like Hong Kong or Singapore without anyskyscrapers or other forms of conventional high-density housing. This overcrowding produces a great amount of pollution, worsening the quality and length of life. Due to insufficient sanitation and water filtration systems, worsened by the fragility of thewater lens of the atolls and by climate change, only about 66% have access to clean water. Waterborne diseases grow at record levels throughout the islands. Poor sanitation has led to an increase in cases of conjunctivitis, diarrhoea, dysentery, and fungal infections. Kiribati is the country with the third highest prevalence of smoking in the world, with 54–57% of the population reported as smokers.[202] Due to this and other "lifestyle diseases", such astype 2 diabetes,[203] there has been a drastic spike in amputations on the islands, doubling in a few years.[citation needed]
As a consequence, the population of Kiribati has a quite low life expectancy at birth of 68.46 years.[204] Even if this data is of only 66.9 years, provided elsewhere, Kiribati ranks last in life expectancy out of the 20 nations of Oceania. This life expectancy is 64.3 for males, and 69.5 for females and there is an infant mortality rate of 41 deaths per 1,000 live births.[14]Tuberculosis has a small presence in the country, with 365 cases per 100,000 a year.[205] Government expenditure on health was at US$268 per capita (PPP) in 2006.[206] In 1990–2007, there were 23 physicians per 100,000 persons.[207] Since the arrival of Cuban doctors in 2006, the infant mortality rate has decreased significantly.[208]
Most health problems are related to consumption of semi-raw seafood, limited food storage facilities, and bacterial contamination of fresh water supplies. In the early 2000s, between 1 and 7% of the population, depending on the island, were annually treated for food poisoning in a hospital. Modernization and cross-cultural exchange of the late 20th century brought new issues of unhealthy diet and lifestyle, heavy smoking, especially among the young, and external infections, includingHIV/AIDS.[209]
Fresh water remains a concern of Kiribati – during the dry season (Aumaiaki), water has been drilled for instead of using rain water tanks. In recent years, there has been a longer than usual Aumaikai season resulting in additional water having to be drilled from beneath the water table. This has introduced water-borne illnesses, compounding the health problems within Kiribati.[210]
The Human Rights Measurement Initiative[211] finds that Kiribati is fulfilling 77.2% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to health based on its level of income.[212] When looking at the right to health with respect to children, Kiribati achieves 93.8% of what is expected based on its current income.[212] In regards to the right to health amongst the adult population, the country achieves 92.2% of what is expected based on the nation's level of income.[212] Kiribati falls into the "very bad" category when evaluating the right to reproductive health because the government is fulfilling only 45.5% of what the country is expected to achieve based on the resources (income) it has available.[212]
Primary education is free and compulsory for the first nine years, beginning at age six.[213] Mission schools are slowly being absorbed into the government primary school system. Higher education is expanding; students may seek technical, teacher or marine training, or study in other countries.[102] Most choosing to do the latter have gone to Fiji to attend theUniversity of the South Pacific, and those wishing to complete medical training have been sent to Australia, New Zealand or Cuba.[214]
The education system is organised as follows:
Preschool for childhood from 1 to 5 years;
Primary school (Class 1 to 6) from 6 to 11 years;
Junior secondary school (Form 1 to 3) from 12 to 14;
Senior secondary school (Form 4 to 7) from 15 to 18.
The University of the South Pacific has a campus inTeaoraereke for distant/flexible learning, but also to provide preparatory studies towards obtaining certificates, diplomas and degrees at other campus sites.
Kiribati folk music is generally based onchanting or other forms of vocalising, accompanied bybody percussion. Public performances in modern Kiribati are generally performed by a seated chorus, accompanied by a guitar. However, during formal performances of the standing dance (Te Kaimatoa) or the hip dance (Te Buki), a wooden box is used as a percussion instrument. This box is constructed to give a hollow and reverberating tone when struck simultaneously by a chorus of men sitting around it. Traditional songs are often love-themed, but there are also competitive, religious, children's, patriotic, war and wedding songs. There are alsostick dances which accompany legends and semi-historical stories.[217] These stick dances ortirere (pronounced "seerere") are performed only during major festivals.[citation needed]
Kiribati dance is distinguished among other Pacific island dances by its emphasis on the outstretched arms of the dancer and sudden birdlike movements of the head. Thefrigate bird (Fregata minor) on the Kiribati flag is emblematic of this bird-like style of Kiribati dancing. Most dances are in the standing or sitting position with movement limited and staggered. Smiling whilst dancing is generally considered vulgar within the context of Kiribati dancing. This is due to its origin of not being solely as a form of entertainment but as a form of storytelling and a display of the skill, beauty and endurance of the dancer.[218][219]
Traditionally, the staple diet of the I-Kiribati was the abundance of seafood and coconuts. Starch-based carbohydrate sources were not plentiful due to the hostile climate of the atolls with only the northernmost atolls being viable for constant agriculture. The national cropbwabwai was only eaten during special celebrations along with pork.
To complement the rather low consumption of carbohydrates in their diets, the I-Kiribati processed the sap and fruit of the abundant pandanus and coconut trees into different beverages and foods such aste karewe (fresh daily sap of the coconut tree) orte tuae (dried pandanus cake) andte kabubu (dried pandanus flour) from pandanus fruit pulp andte kamaimai (coconut sap syrup) from coconut sap.[citation needed]
After World War II, rice became a daily staple in most households; this is still the case today. The majority of seafood—in particular, fish—is eaten sashimi-style with either coconut sap, soy sauce or vinegar-based dressings, often combined with chillies and onions.
Kiribati has competed at theCommonwealth Games since 1998 and theSummer Olympics since 2004. It sent three competitors to its first Olympics, two sprinters and a weightlifter.[220] Kiribati won its first ever Commonwealth Games medal at the2014 Commonwealth Games, when weightlifterDavid Katoatau won Gold in the 105 kg Group.[221]
SirArthur Grimble wrote about his time working in the British colonial service in Kiribati (then the Gilbert Islands) from 1914 to 1932 in two popular booksA Pattern of Islands (1952)[75] andReturn to the Islands (1957).[225] He also undertook academic studies of Gilbertese culture.[38]
John Smith, the last governor of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, wrote his memoirAn Island in the Autumn (2011).[226]
Alice Piciocchi's illustrated essay,Kiribati. Cronache illustrate da una terra (s)perduta, (2016) Milan: 24 ORE Cultura, also translated into French (2018, éditions du Rouergue), tries to write and portray a comprehensive encyclopaedic book of modern Kiribati.[228]
^Reilly Ridgell (1995).Pacific Nations and Territories: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia (3rd ed.).Honolulu:Bess Press. p. 95.
^In his authoritative pioneerAtlas de l'Océan pacifique (1824–27).
^Voyage autour du monde exécuté par ordre du roi, sur la corvette de Sa Majesté,La Coquille, pendant les années 1822, 1823, 1824 et 1825, sous le ministère et conformément aux instructions de S.E.M. le Marquis de Clermont-Tonnerre... et publié sous les auspices de son ExcellenceMgr le Cte de Chabrol ..., Par M. L.I. Duperrey..., 8 volumes in 4° et 5 volumes in-folio, Paris,Arthus-Bertrand, 1826–1830 (Imprimerie deFirmin Didot).
^abcRidgell, Reilly (1995)Pacific Nations and Territories: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. 3rd Edition. Honolulu: Bess Press.ISBN1573060011. p. 95.
^Harris, D. N.; Kessler, M. D.; Shetty, A. C.; Weeks, D. E.; Minster, R. L.; Browning, S.; Cochrane, E. E.; Deka, R.; Hawley, N. L.; Reupena, M. S.; Naseri, T.; Trans-Omics for Precision Medicine (TOPMed) Consortium; TOPMed Population Genetics Working Group; McGarvey, S. T.; O'Connor, T. D. (2020)."Evolutionary history of modern Samoans".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.117 (17):9458–9465.Bibcode:2020PNAS..117.9458H.doi:10.1073/pnas.1913157117.PMC7196816.PMID32291332.
^But the organization of the political decisions was far more complex as described by Jean-Paul Latouche, inQui veut prendre la parole ? (2003) byMarcel Detienne.
^Best, P. B. (1983). "Sperm whale stock assessments and the relevance of historical whaling records".Report of the International Whaling Commission. Special Issue 5:41–55.
^Geddes, W. H.; Chambers, A.; Sewell, B.; Lawrence, R.; Watters, R. (1982). Islands on the line: team report (Report). Atoll economy : social change in Kiribati and Tuvalu, no. 1. Canberra: Australian National University.
^H. E. Maude,Beachcombers and castaways, The Journal of the Polynesian Society 73: 3 (1964) 254–293
^Campbell, Ian C. (2014).Gone Native in Polynesia: Captivity Narratives and Experiences from the South Pacific. Praeger.ISBN978-0313307874.
^Milcairns, Susanne Williams (2006).Native Strangers: Beachcombers, Renegades and Castaways in the South Seas. Auckland: Penguin Books.
^Ralston, Caroline (2014).Native Strangers: Grass Huts and Warehouses: Pacific Beach Communities of the Nineteenth Century. University of Queensland Press.ISBN9781921902321.
^Whitmee, Samuel James (1871).A missionary cruise in the South Pacific being the report of a voyage amongst the Tokelau, Ellice and Gilbert islands, in the missionary barque "John Williams" during 1870. Sydney: J. Cook & Co.
^Lovett, Richard (1899).The history of the London Missionary Society, 1795-1895. Vol. 1. London: H. Frowde.
^Maude, H. E. (1963)."The Evolution of the GilberteseBoti".The Journal of the Polynesian Society.72 (Supplement Memoir No. 35):1–68. Archived fromthe original on 27 January 2019. Retrieved23 March 2019.
^Mahaffy, Arthur (1909)."CO 225/86/26804". Report by Mr. Arthur Mahaffy on a visit to the Gilbert and Ellice Islands (Report). London: His Majesty's Stationery Office. Retrieved26 July 2020.
^"Palmyra Atoll".smoketreemanor.com. 17 March 2019. p. 5. Retrieved8 May 2025.
^ That treaty was signed shortly after independence and ratified in 1983, with the United States relinquishing all claims to the sparsely-inhabited Phoenix Islands, and those of the Line Islands that are part of Kiribati territory.
^Kiribati was then granted sovereignty onCanton Island,Enderbury Island, Birnie Island, Mckean Island, Rawaki, Manra, Orona, and Nikumaroro from the Phoenix Islands; andTeraina,Tabuaeran,Kiritimati, Malden Island, Starbuck Island, Caroline Islands, Vostok Islands and Flint Island from the Line Islands.
^ab"The Constitution of Kiribati" (PDF).Constitutionne. The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA). Retrieved 7 September 2022.
^Macdonald, B. (1996). Governance and political process in Kiribati (Economics Division, Working Paper 96/2). Canberra: Australian National University, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies.
^Herman, Jos (June 2016)."Cancelled Projects: HOPE and HOPE-X"(PDF).Tiros Space Information News Bulletin. Vol. 41, no. 9. Australia. p. 2. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 12 March 2018. Retrieved28 April 2018.
^Arthur P. Webb & Paul S. Kench (2010). "The dynamic response of reef islands to sea-level rise: Evidence from multi-decadal analysis of island change in the Central Pacific".Global and Planetary Change.72 (3):234–246.Bibcode:2010GPC....72..234W.doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.05.003.
^"Chapter 6: Kiribati". Climate Variability, Extremes and Change in the Western Tropical Pacific: New Science and Updated Country Reports 2014 (Report). Climate Change in the Pacific: Scientific Assessment and New Research. Vol. 1 & 2. Pacific Climate Change Science Program. 2014.
^"2015 Population and Housing Census, Volume 1: Management Report and Basic Tables"(PDF). National Statistics Office (Ministry of Finance, Kiribati). September 2016. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 29 October 2019. Retrieved17 August 2017. The populations of Kiribati and of South Tarawa appear in Table 1b ("Population and No. of Households by Island, Ethnicity and Land Area: 2015") on page 32. The population of South Tarawa is 39,058. If the population of nearbyBetio is included, the figure increases to 56,388. The population located in the Gilbert Islands is 99,633 and is given in Table A3 ("Population Summary by Island: 1931–2015") on page 195.
Grimble, Arthur (1989).Tungaru Traditions: Writings on the Atoll Culture of the Gilbert Islands. Penguin Travel Library. University of Hawaii Press.ISBN978-0-8248-1217-1.
Koch, Gerd (translated by Guy Slater) (1986).The Material Culture of Kiribati. Suva: University of the South Pacific.ISBN9789820200081.
Moseley, William G. (2014).An Introduction to Human-Environment Geography: Local Dynamics and Global Processes. Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN978-1-4051-8932-3.
Piciocchi, Alice (2016).Kiribati: cronache illustrate da una terra (s)perduta. Milan, Italy: 24 ORE Cultura.ISBN978-88-6648-307-6. (also in French)
Sabatier, Ernest (1954).Dictionnaire gilbertin-français. Mission of the Sacred Heart.
Stearns, Harold Thornton (1973).Geologic Setting of the Fossil Goose Bones Found on Molokai Island, Hawaii. Bernice P. Bishop Museum.Malayo-Polynesian terms for the dog, te kiri, and the pig. te buaka, occur in Gilbertese word lists, but in general usage the dog is often called te kamea (from "come here") and the pig is known only as te beki.
Troost, J. Maarten (8 June 2004).The Sex Lives of Cannibals. Broadway Books.ISBN978-0-76-791530-4.
Walsh, Michael Ravell (2020).A History of Kiribati: From the Earliest Times to the 40th Anniversary of the Republic.ISBN9-79869535-895-7.
Whincup, Joan; Whincup, Tony (2001).Akekeia! Traditional dance in Kiribati. Wellington, NZ.[self-published source]
Williams, Maslyn; Macdonald, Barrie (1985).The Phosphateers: A History of the British Phosphate Commissioners and the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission. Melbourne University Press.ISBN978-0-522-84302-6.
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