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TheKipchaks, also spelledQipchaqs, known asPolovtsians (Polovtsy) in Russian sources,[2] wereTurkicnomads and then a confederation that existed in theMiddle Ages inhabiting parts of theEurasian Steppe.
First mentioned in the eighth century as part of theSecond Turkic Khaganate, they most likely inhabited theAltai region from where they expanded over the following centuries, first as part of theKimek–Kipchak confederation and later as part of a confederation with theCumans. There were groups of Kipchaks in thePontic–Caspian steppe, China,Syr Darya, andSiberia.Cumania was conquered by theMongol Empire in the early 13th century.
The Kipchaks interpreted their name as meaning "hollow tree" (cf.Middle Turkic:kuv ağaç);[3] according to them, inside a hollow tree, their original human ancestress gave birth to her son.[4]Németh points to the Siberianqıpčaq "angry, quick-tempered" attested only in theSiberian Sağay dialect (a dialect ofKhakas language).[5] Klyashtorny links Kipchak toqovı,qovuq "unfortunate, unlucky"; yetGolden sees a better match inqıv "good fortune" and adjectival suffix-čāq. Regardless, Golden notes that the ethnonym's original form and etymology "remain a matter of contention and speculation".[6]
On theKipchak steppe, a complex ethnic assimilation and consolidation process took place between the 11th and 13th centuries.[7] The western Kipchak tribes absorbed people ofOghuz,Pecheneg, ancientBashkir,Bulgar and other origin; the eastern Kipchak merged with theKimek,Karluk,Kara-Khitai and others. They were all identified by the ethnonymKipchak.[7] Groups and tribes of possibleMongolic orpara-Mongolic extraction were also incorporated into the eastern Kipchak conglomerate. Peter Golden argues that the Ölberli were pushed westwards due to socio-political changes among the para-MongolicKhitans, such as the collapse of theLiao dynasty and formation of the Qara Khitai, and attached themselves to the eastern Kipchak confederation where they eventually came to form a part of the ruling strata and elite. Golden identifies the Ölberli with the Qay whom are recorded as theXi in Chinese sources andTatabı in Turkic inscriptions, and were of Mongolic or para-Mongolic background - likely stemming from theXianbei.[8][9]
Chinese histories only mentioned the Kipchaks a few times: for example,during Yuan dynasty Mongolian generalTutuha's origin from Kipchak tribe Ölberli,[10] or some information about the Kipchaks' homeland, horses, and the Kipchaks' physiognomy and psychology.[11][12][13]
The Kipchaks were first unambiguously mentioned in Persian geographeribn Khordadbeh'sBook of Roads and Kingdoms as a northernly Turkic tribe, afterToquz Oghuz,Karluks,Kimeks,Oghuz,J.f.r (either corrupted fromJikil or representingMajfar forMajğar),Pechenegs,Türgesh, Aðkiš, and beforeYenisei Kirghiz.[14] Kipchaks possibly appeared in the 8th-century Moyun Chur inscription asTürk-Qïbchaq, mentioned as having been part of theTurkic Khaganate for fifty years;[15] even so, this attestation is uncertain as damages on the inscription leave only-čq (𐰲𐰴) (*-čaq orčiq) readable.[16] It is unclear if the Kipchaks could be identified with, according to Klyashtorny, the [Al]tï Sir in theOrkhon inscriptions (薛延陀; pinyin:Xuè-Yántuó),[17][18][19] or with theJuéyuèshī (厥越失) in Chinese sources;[15][20] however,Zuev (2002) identified 厥越失Juéyuèshī (< MC *kiwat-jiwat-siet) with toponym Kürüshi in the Ezhim river valley (Ch.Ayan < MCh. 阿豔 *a-iam < OTrk.Ayam) inTuva Depression.[21] LinguistBernard Karlgren and some Soviet scholars (e.g.Lev Gumilyov[22]) attempted to connect the Kipchaks to theQūshé ~ Qūshí (屈射), a people once conquered by theXiongnu; however, Golden deems this connection unlikely, considering 屈射'sOld Chinese pronunciation *khut m-lak andEastern Han Chinese *kʰut źa ~kʰut jak/jɑk (as reconstructed by Schuessler, 2009:314,70).[a][24][25] The relationship between the Kipchaks and Cumans is unclear.[15]
While part of the Turkic Khaganate, they most likely inhabited theAltai region.[15] When the Khaganate collapsed, they became part of theKimek confederation, with which they expanded to theIrtysh,Ishim andTobol rivers.[15] They then appeared in Islamic sources.[15] In the 9th centuryIbn Khordadbeh indicated that they held autonomy within the Kimek confederation.[15] They entered the Kimek in the 8th- or beginning of 9th century, and were one of seven original tribes.[26] In the 10th-centuryHudud al-'Alam it is said that the Kimek appointed the Kipchak king.[15] The Kimek confederation, probably spearheaded by the Kipchaks, moved into Oghuz lands, andSighnaq inSyr Darya became the Kipchak urban centre.[15] Kipchak remnants remained inSiberia, while others pushed westwards in the Qun migration.[15] As a result, three Kipchak groups emerged:[27]
The early 11th century saw a massive Turkic nomadic migration towards the Islamic world.[28] The first waves were recorded in theKara-Khanid Khanate in 1017–18.[28] It is unknown whether the Cumans conquered the Kipchaks or were simply the leaders of the confederacy of the Kipchak–Turkic tribes.[28] What is certain is that the two peoples gradually mingled politically and that, from the second half of the 12th century onwards, the names Cumans and Kipchaks became interchangeable to refer to the whole confederacy.[29]
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The Mongols defeated theAlans after convincing the Kipchaks to desert them through pointing at their likeness in language and culture.[30] Nonetheless, the Kipchaks were defeated next.[30] UnderkhanKöten, Kipchaks fled to thePrincipality of Kiev (the Ruthenians), where the Kipchaks had several marriage relations, one of which was Köten's son-in-lawMstislav Mstislavich of Galicia.[30] The Ruthenians and Kipchaks forged an alliance against the Mongols, and met at theDnieper to locate them.[30] After an eight-day pursuit, they metat the Kalka River (1223).[30] The Kipchaks, who werehorse archers like the Mongols, served as thevanguard and scouts.[30] The Mongols, who appeared to retreat, tricked the Ruthenian–Kipchak force into a trap after suddenly emerging behind the hills and surrounding them.[30] The fleeing Kipchaks were closely pursued, and theRuthenian camp was massacred.[30]
The nomadic Kipchaks were the main targets of the Mongols when they crossed the Volga in 1236.[31] The defeated Kipchaks mainly entered the Mongol ranks, while others fled westward.[31] Köten led 40,000 families into Hungary, where KingBela IV granted them refuge in return for their Christianization.[31] The refugee Kipchaks fled Hungary after Köten was murdered.[31]
After their fall, Kipchaks and Cumans were known to have become mercenaries in Europe and taken as slave warriors. InEgypt, theMamluks were in part drawn from Kipchaks and Cumans.[32]
In 1239–1240, large groups of Kipchaks fleeing from theMongols crossed theDanube. These groups wandered for a long time to find a suitable place to settle inThrace. In order to prevent the Kipchaks from plundering and to prevent theSeljuks,Mongols andLatin Empire from occupying the lands of theEmpire of Nicaea and to benefit from their military capabilities, EmperorJohn III Doukas Vatatzes invited the Kipchaks from theBalkans to the service of theEmpire of Nicaea. He settled some of them in Anatolia (what is nowTurkey), to protect theEmpire of Nicaea from foreign invasions.[33][34][35][36] These Kipchaks preserved their identity after theOttomans conquered the lands they lived in.[37][38][39][40] The Kipchaks who settled in West Anatolia during the reign of Nicea EmperorJohn III Doukas Vatatzes are the ancestors of a community calledManavs living in Northwest Anatolia today.[41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48]
Another Kipchak migration in Anatolia dates back to the period of theChobanids Beylik, which ruled aroundKastamonu (a city in Anatolia). Hüsameddin Emir Çoban, one of the Seljuk emirs, crossed the Black Sea and made an expedition to theKipchak steppes and returned with countless booty and slaves. As a result of the expedition, a few Kipchak families inCrimea were brought toSinop by sea viaSudak and settled in theWest Black Sea region. In addition, maritime trade intensified with theCrimea andKipchak regions in theIsfendiyarids Beylik.[38][49][50]
The Kipchak–Cuman confederation spoke aTurkic language (Kipchak languages,Cuman language)[28] whose most important surviving record is theCodex Cumanicus, a late 13th-century dictionary of words in Kipchak, Cuman, andLatin. The presence inEgypt of Turkic-speakingMamluks also stimulated the compilation of Kipchak/Cuman-Arabic dictionaries and grammars that are important in the study of several old Turkic languages.
When members of theArmenian diaspora moved from theCrimean peninsula to thePolish-Ukrainian borderland, at the end of the 13th century, they brought Kipchak, their adoptedTurkic language, with them.[51] During the 16th and the 17th centuries, the Turkic language among theArmenian communities of the Kipchak people wasArmeno-Kipchak. They were settled in theLviv andKamianets-Podilskyi areas of what is now Ukraine.[52]
The literary form of theCuman language became extinct in the 18th century in the region ofCumania inHungary. Cuman in Crimea, however, became the ancestor of the central dialect ofCrimean Tatar.[53]
Mongolian linguistic elements in the Kipchak–Kimek confederation remain "unproven";[28] though that confederation's constituentTatar tribe possibly had been Mongolic speakers who later underwent Turkification.[54]
The Kipchaks practicedTengrism.[55] Muslim conversion occurred near Islamic centres.[55]Some Kipchaks and Cumans were known to have converted to Christianity around the 11th century, at the suggestion of theGeorgians, as they allied in their conflicts against the Muslims. A great number were baptized at the request of Georgian KingDavid IV, who also married a daughter of Kipchak KhanOtrok. From 1120, there was a Kipchak national Christian church and an important clergy.[56] Following the Mongol conquest,Islam rose in popularity among the Kipchaks of theGolden Horde.[57]
The confederation or tribal union which Kipchaks entered in the 8th- or beginning of 9th century as one of seven original tribes is known in historiography as that of the Kimek (or Kimäk).[26] Turkic inscriptions do not mention the state with that name.[58] 10th-centuryHudud al-'Alam mentions the "country of Kīmāk", ruled by akhagan (king) who has eleven lieutenants that hold hereditary fiefs.[59] Furthermore,Andar Az Khifchāq is mentioned as a country (nāḥiyat) of theKīmāk, 'of which inhabitants resemble theGhūz in some customs'.[59]
In the 9th centuryIbn Khordadbeh indicated that they held autonomy within the Kimek confederation.[15] They entered the Kimek in the 8th- or beginning of 9th century, and were one of the seven original tribes.[26] In the 10th-century'sHudud al-'Alam it is said that the Kimek appointed the Kipchak king.[15]
The looks of a typical Kipchak are a matter of debate. This is because in spite of their Eastern origins, several sources point at them being white, blue-eyed, and blond. It is important to elaborate, however, that the full range of available data sketches a more complex picture. While the written sources often emphasize a fair complexion the craniometric and genetic data, as well as some historical descriptions, support the image of a people highly heterogenous in appearance. Skulls with East Asian features are often found in burials associated with the Kipchaks in Central Asia and Europe.[63]
An early description of the physical appearance of Kipchaks comes from the Great Ming Code (大明律) Article 122,[64] in which they were described as overall 'vile' and having blonde/red hair and blue/green eyes. Han Chinese were not required to marry with Kipchaks.[65][66] Fair complexion, e.g. red hair and blue or green eyes, were already noted by the Chinese for some other ancient Turkic tribes, such as theYenisei Kirghiz, while theTiele (to whom the Qun belonged) were not described as foreign looking, i.e. they were likelyEast Asian in appearance.[67] It is noted that "Chinese histories also depict the Turkic-speaking peoples as typically possessing East/Inner Asianphysiognomy, as well as occasionally having West Eurasian physiognomy." Lee and Kuang believe it is likely "early and medieval Turkic peoples themselves did not form a homogeneous entity and that some of them, non-Turkic by origin, had become Turkicised at some point in history."[68] The Yenisei Kirghiz are among those suggested to be of turkicised or part non-Turkic origin. According to Lee & Kuang, who cite Chinese historical descriptions as well as genetic data, the turcophone "Qirghiz" may have been of non-Turkic origin, and were later Turkified through inter-tribal marriage.[68]Gardizi believed the red hair and white skin of the Kipchaks was explained by mixing with the "Saqlabs" (Slavs), while Lee & Kuang note the non-Turkic components to be better explained by historicalIranian-speaking nomads.[68]
Russian anthropologist Oshanin notes that the 'Mongoloid' phenotype, characteristic of modern Kipchak-speakingKazakhs and Qirghiz, is prevalent among the skulls of historical Qipchaq and Pecheneg nomads found across Central Asia and Ukraine. E. Bretschneider suggests that the description of some medieval Kipchaks as having 'blue or green eyes and red hair' might be due to confusion with the Russians. Lee & Kuang (2017) also note that modern descendants of the Kipchaks, particularly the Karakypshaks within Kazakh tribes, show a high frequency of haplogroup R1b (63.6%).[68]
A genetic study published inNature in May 2018 examined the remains of two Kipchak males buried between c. 1000 AD and 1200 AD.[69] One male was found to be a carrier of the paternalhaplogroup C2[70] and the maternal haplogroupF1b1b,[71] and displayed "increased East Asian ancestry".[72] The other male was found to be a carrier of the maternal haplogroupD4[73] and displayed "pronounced European ancestry".[72]
The modern Northwestern branch of theTurkic languages is often referred to as the Kipchak branch. The languages in this branch are mostly considered to be descendants of the Kipchak language, and the people who speak them may likewise be referred to as Kipchak peoples. Some of the groups traditionally included are theManavs,Karachays,Balkars,Siberian Tatars,Nogays,Bashkirs,Kazakhs,Kyrgyz,Volga Tatars, andCrimean Tatars. There is also a village named Kipchak inCrimea. Qypshaq, which is a development of "Kipchak" in theKazakh language, is one of the constituent tribes of theMiddle Horde confederation of the Kazakh people. The name Kipchak also occurs as a surname inKazakhstan. Some of the descendants of the Kipchaks are the Bashkirian clan Qipsaq.[74]
Radlov believed that among the current languages Cuman is closest to theMishar dialect of theTatar language.[75] Especially the regional Mishar dialects ofSergachsky district have been named as "faithfully close to original Kipchak".[76]
Kipchak confederations
Kipchak ancestry
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The Cumans or Kipchaks, known as the Polovtsians to the Russians, were an event more formidable threat.
p.76: On the so-called Baptistère de Saint Louis, a large brass basin inlaid with silver and gold from the early Mamluk period, we can identify enthroned figures of a ruler apparently wearing thesharbūsh. Behrens-Abouseif has convincingly made the case that these figures represent SultanBaybars, the great Mamluk hero and victor over the Mongols and Crusaders 30 (figs. 4 and 5).
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link){{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
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