The Kinshasa site has been inhabited byTeke and Humbu people for centuries and was known asNshasa before transforming into acommercial hub during the 19th and 20th centuries.[20][21] The city was named Léopoldville byHenry Morton Stanley in honor ofLeopold II of Belgium.[20][22][23] The name was changed to Kinshasa in 1966 duringMobutu Sese Seko'sZairianisation campaign as a tribute toNshasa village.[20] Covering 9,965 square kilometers, Kinshasa stretches along the southern shores of thePool Malebo on theCongo River. It forms an expansive crescent across flat, low-lying terrain at an average altitude of about 300 meters.[20] Kinshasa borders theMai-Ndombe,Kwilu, andKwango Provinces to the east; theCongo River delineates its western and northern perimeters, constituting anatural border with theRepublic of the Congo; to the south lies theKongo Central Province. Across the river sitsBrazzaville, the smaller capital of the neighboring Republic of the Congo, forming the world's closest pair of capital cities despite being separated by a four-kilometer-wide unbridged span of the Congo River.[24][25][20][26]
Kinshasa also functions as one of the26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo; it is administratively divided into24 communes, which are further subdivided into 365 neighborhoods.[27] With an expansive administrative region, over 90 percent of the province's land remains rural, while urban growth predominantly occurs on its western side.[28] Kinshasa is the largest nominallyFrancophone urban area globally, withFrench being the language of government, education, media, public services and high-end commerce, whileLingala is used as alingua franca in the street. The city's inhabitants are popularly known asKinois, with the term "Kinshasans" used in English terminology.[7][29][30][31]
There are several theories about the origin of the nameKinshasa. Paul Raymaekers, ananthropologist andethnologist, suggests that the name derives from the combination of theKikongo and Kihumbu languages.[20] The prefix "Ki(n)" signifies a hill or inhabited area and "Nsasa" or "Nshasa" refers to a bag of salt. According to Raymackers,Kinshasa was a significant trading site where people from the Lower Congo (nowKongo Central Province) andSouth Atlantic Ocean exchanged salt for goods such asiron,slaves andivory brought by those from the Upper Congo (nowTshopo Province).[20] However Hendrik van Moorsel, an anthropologist, historian and researcher, proposes thatBatekefishermen traded fish for cassava with locals along the riverbank, and the place of this exchange was called "Ulio".[20][21] InTeke, "exchange" is "Utsaya", and "place of exchange" is "Intsaya". Thus, the name evolved fromUlio toIntsaya, and later, under the influence of Kikongo, transformed intoKintsaya, eventually becomingKinshasa.[20]Kinshasa, also known asN'shasa, is regarded as the primary "place of exchange" on the southern bank of thePool Malebo, wherebartering occurred even before the commercial boom ofKintambo.[20]
The nameNshasa is believed to originate from the Teke verb "tsaya" (tsaa), meaning "to exchange", and the noun "intsaya" (insaa), referring to any market or place of exchange. It was at this location that Tekebrokers traded ivory and slaves from the Banunu slave traders, often mistaken for theYanzi, for European trade items brought by the Zombo andKongo people.[20] Despite the various theories, the historical name ofKinshasa is known to have beenNshasa, as documented byHenry Morton Stanley during his crossing ofAfrica fromZanzibar toBoma in 1874–1877 when he mentioned visiting "the king of Nshasa" on 14 March 1877.[20][23][22]
View of Léopoldville station and port (1884)Kinshassa village (1912)
In pre-colonial times, the area was inhabited by two trading centres,Ntamo andNtsaasa, which were part of theTio Kingdom.[38]: 247–55
The city was established as a trading post byHenry Morton Stanley in 1881.[39] It was named Léopoldville in honor of Stanley's employerKing Leopold II of the Belgians. He would then proceed to take control of most of theCongo Basin as theCongo Free State, not as a colony but as his private property. The post flourished as the first navigable port on the Congo River aboveLivingstone Falls, a series of rapids over 300 kilometres (190 miles) below Leopoldville. At first, all goods arriving by sea or being sent by sea had to be carried by porters between Léopoldville andMatadi, the port below the rapids and 150 km (93 mi) from the coast. The completion of theMatadi-Kinshasaportage railway, in 1898, provided an alternative route around the rapids and sparked the rapid development of Léopoldville. In 1914, a pipeline was installed so that crude oil could be transported from Matadi to the upriver steamers in Leopoldville.[40] By 1923, the city was elevated to capital of theBelgian Congo, replacing the town ofBoma in the Congo estuary, pursuant to the Royal Decree of 1 July 1923, countersigned by theMinister of the Colonies, Louis Franc.[20][40] This transition, finalized in 1929, led to the development of a new administrativequartier located betweenKinshasa, then emerging as a major commercial center, and Léopoldville-West, a preexisting settlement. The selected site was namedKalina (nowGombe) and developed as the colonial administrative center.[41] Before this, Léopoldville was designated an "urban district", encompassing exclusively thecommunes ofKintambo and the current Gombe, which burgeoned aroundNgaliema Bay.[20][42][43] Then the communes ofKinshasa,Barumbu, andLingwala emerged. In the 1930s, these communes predominantly housed employees of Chanic, Filtisaf, andUtex Africa.[43]
In 1941, legislative ordinance n°293/AIMO of 25 June 1941, conferred Kinshasa the status of a city and established an Urban Committee (Comité Urbain), with an allocated area of 5,000 hectares and a population of 53,000.[44][43] Concurrently, it became the colony's capital, theCongo-Kasaï Province's capital, and theMoyen Congo district. The city was demarcated into two zones: the urban zone, comprising Léo II, Léo-Ouest, Kalina, Léo-I, or Léo-Est, and Ndolo; and the indigenous zone to the south. The urban populace swelled in 1945 with the cessation offorced labor, facilitating the influx of native Africans from rural regions. Léopoldville then became predominantly inhabited by theBakongo ethnic group.[43]
After gaining its independence on 30 June 1960, followingriots in 1959, theRepublic of the Congoelected its first prime minister,Patrice Lumumba whose perceived pro-Soviet leanings were viewed as a threat by Western interests. This being the height of the Cold War, the U.S. and Belgium did not want to lose control of the strategic wealth of the Congo, in particular its uranium. Less than a year after Lumumba's election, the Belgians and the U.S. bought the support of his Congolese rivals and set in motion the events that culminated in Lumumba's assassination.[45] In 1964,Moïse Tshombe decreed the expulsion of all nationals ofRepublic of the Congo,Burundi andMali, as well as all political refugees fromRwanda.[46][47][48][49] In 1965, with the help of the U.S. and Belgium,Joseph-Désiré Mobutu seized power in the Congo. He initiated a policy of "Authenticity", attempting to renativize the names of people and places in the country. On 2 May 1966, the government announced that the nation's major cities would be restored to their pre-colonial names, effective on 30 June, the sixth anniversary of independence.[50] Léopoldville was renamedKinshasa, fora village named Kinshasa that once stood near the site. Kinshasa grew rapidly under Mobutu, drawing people from across the country who came in search of their fortunes or to escape ethnic strife elsewhere, thus adding to the many ethnicities and languages already found there.[40]
Europeanurban development began in 1881 and was guided byrigid planning principles to preserved an orderly and aesthetically pleasing environment.[51] A major urban expansion was the construction of theMatadi–Léopoldville Railway, which was initiated in 1890 and completed in 1911. The project was emblematic of colonial progress and served as a critical link between the port of Léopoldville and the coastal city ofMatadi.[52] After its completion, the station began to transform, with the erection ofprefabricated residences known as "Danish houses", which were imported from Belgium. These permanent structures gradually replaced the temporary tents that had accommodated early explorers, soldiers, and mercenaries.[52] As Léopoldville developed into an administrative and military center, agents of the Congo Free State, and, after 1908, those of the Belgian Congo, settled in the area. Europeans often worked as engineers, architects, carpenters, and builders,[52] and were supported by mercenaries and trained African laborers, who were instrumental in the physical construction. By 1902, theKitambo (nowKintambo) area was entirely occupied by European constructions.[52] The urban center expanded as surrounding villages grew, drawn by the prospects of employment and commerce. These settlements would eventually constitute the earliestcités indigènes, which were designated residential areas for the African population.[52]
A 1942 view of Léopoldville from the balcony of the A.B.C. Hotel. Established in 1914, the A.B.C. Hotel was the city's first hotel complex, which was constructed by theCompagnie Commerciale et Agricole d'Alimentation du Bas-Congo (ABC), a subsidiary of theCompagnie du Congo pour le Commerce et l'Industrie (CCCI), which also oversaw the construction of theMatadi–Léopoldville Railway. The hotel formed part of a broader colonial initiative to expand infrastructure and hospitality services in the Belgian Congo.[53][54]
At this early stage, the connection between Léopoldville (commonly referred to as "Léo") andKinshasa consisted of an eight-kilometer track that was often impassable during the rainy season. Transportation was rudimentary, with a few bicycles, limited private cars, and even dromedaries in use, as public transit infrastructure was virtually nonexistent.[52] In 1911, George Moulaert, an influential colonial administrator, drafted a comprehensive urban plan for Léopoldville and the greater Kinshasa area that would guide spatial development for decades, while, ironically,World War I accelerated local economic activity.[55][52] Largely cut off from Europe, the Belgian Congo experienced a period of relative prosperity in which motorboats and trucks increasingly replaced traditional transport such as canoes and human porters, and by the end of the war in 1918 Léopoldville rivaled other Congolese cities and seized the attention of Belgian architects who saw it as a potential model for colonial urban experimentation. Colonial urbanization remained tightly controlled and reflected the aspirations and limitations of Belgian policy,[52] and in 1922 a decree mandated that large companies provide housing for their African workers, a requirement that major firms such asHuileries du Congo Belge (HCB) met by building workers' camps, while smaller enterprises often failed to comply.[56] The existing framework, governed by the decree on "the labor contract between natives and civilized masters", proved insufficient to meet growing housing demands, which then promptedreligious missions to extend loans to African residents forself-construction before becoming overwhelmed, after which a special fund was established to provide interest-free loans for house construction using locally available materials.[56]
TheKinshasa Central Market was launched in January 1944 to serve the commercial needs of the African population as urban development and colonial segregation measures grew more pronounced.
Colonial authorities enforced aracially segregated urban model in which African residents were confined to separate indigenousquarters, known ascités indigènes, such as Léo I and Léo II.[51] These zones were delineated by colonial authorities who allocated land in rudimentary grids and, lacking modern infrastructure such as sewers, were equipped only with basic sanitation facilities, typically simplepit latrines consisting of holes dug or drilled into the ground. During the 1920s, the urban growth brought the indigenous quarters into proximity with European residential areas, particularly near the Matadi–Kinshasa Railway and theBoulevard Albert 1er (nowBoulevard du 30 Juin).[51] This heightened European settlers' concerns about public health and urban hygiene, which prompted the Léopoldville Urban Committee in 1933 to establish a buffer known as the "neutral zone", which, although recommended to be 800 meters wide, was implemented at only 250 to 300 meters because of logistical constraints and exemptions granted to some Europeans living in the area.[57][51] Known asParc De Bock, now theKinshasa Botanical Garden, this buffer was established by District Commissioner Fernand De Bock with agronomist Roeck and included theKinshasa Zoological Garden, and served as a sanitary barrier and a leisure space for Europeans.[51] The park also containedvegetable gardens tended by unemployed volunteers,[51] while immediately south of the neutral zone lay the indigenous area, which encompassed key facilities such asNdolo Airport,Kinshasa Central Market,Kinshasa General Hospital, a TSF wireless station, agolf course, a cemetery, andCamp Léopold II (nowCamp Kokolo).[57][58][59]
Belgian colonial authorities, motivated by apaternalistic ideology associated with the so-called "civilizing mission", initiated efforts to provide formal housing for the African population, particularly for those employed in urban areas. In the aftermath of theSecond World War, a large-scale residential project called theNouvelle Cité was launched on 407 hectares inDendale, present-dayKasa-Vubu commune, which was overseen by the Service de la Population Noire under Dendale's direction, and by 1947, just two years after its inception, it housed over 8,000 residents, including future PresidentJoseph Kasa-Vubu.[57][51] To address additional housing needs for the African population, the Office des Cités Africaines (OCA) was tasked with urban development and, beginning in 1949, oversaw a ten-year plan encompassingurban design, infrastructure, community facilities, and housing construction.[51] By 1959, over 40,000 homes had been built following a controlled, segregationist approach, with planning initially led by urban planner Georges Ricquier and later taken over by Maurice Heymans in 1953, while the new city plan preserved European dominance over the historical center (La Gombe), limited expansion to adjacent zones, and promoted industrial development inLimete.[51]
Post-1950surban expansion arose due to the "sprawl ofquartiers, the high demand for housing among the population, and the increasing distance between riverside employment zones andcités indigènes". Communes like Kasa-Vubu andNgiri-Ngiri featured structured housing with proper streets, sanitation systems,twin houses, andsingle-level row buildings. Some housing areas were self-built but still regulated, with residents adhering to official layouts and construction guidelines based on their resources.[51] Between 1954 and 1960, OCA developedMatete,Bandalungwa, andLemba, alongside thesatellite city ofNdjili. These included prearranged roads,drainage systems, sewer networks, and paved primary access routes.[51]
For the first time, two-story houses and collective apartment buildings appeared, particularly in Bandalungwa, Matete, and Lemba.Kalamu followed with the expansion of Camp Kaouka and the 20 May neighborhood beyond the Funa River.[51] Further east, across the Yolo River, residential development continued in Limete and its accompanying industrial zone.[51]
In 1991 the city had tofend off rioting soldiers, who were protesting the government's failure to pay them. Subsequently a rebel uprising began, which in 1997 finally brought down the regime of Mobutu.[40]
The eruption of theFirst Congo War (1996–1997), closely tied to the aftermath of the 1994Rwandan genocide, significantly intensified instability in Kinshasa and across the broader region. Following the genocide, theRwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), underPaul Kagame, launched military operations into eastern Zaire, not only targetingHutu insurgents but also committing large-scale violence against Hutu civilians.[60][61][62]UNHCR consultantRobert Gersony estimated that between 5,000 and 10,000 people were killed monthly in mid-1994 alone. The influx of over two million Rwandan Hutu refugees into eastern Zaire further exacerbated security and humanitarian tensions, particularly in provinces such asSouth Kivu.[60][63][64] President Mobutu's regime proved incapable of managing the crisis, thus facilitating the conditions for war.[65] By 1996, foreign-backed militias, including theRwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), theUgandan People's Defence Force (UPDF), and Burundi'sForces Armées Burundaises (FAB), began supporting CongoleseTutsi groups such as theBanyamulenge.[65] Belgian legal and political scholarFilip Reyntjens describes the First Congo War as the convergence of two overlapping goals: the genuine resistance of Congolese Tutsi, who feared retaliation, and the strategic use of this resistance by the Rwandan government to justify the RPA's military involvement in Zaire.[66]
The fall of Kinshasa in May 1997 to the Rwandan- and Ugandan-backedAlliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo (AFDL), led byLaurent-Désiré Kabila, marked the beginning of serious human rights abuses in the capital.[67] In the days following the city's capture, AFDL and RPA forces carried outextrajudicial killings, acts oftorture,rape, and targeted former regime officials as well as members of the eliteSpecial Presidential Division (DSP).[67] On 17 May, Mobutu was overthrown in an AFDL-led coup.[68] Between 18 and 22 May 1997, volunteer teams from theCongolese Red Cross collected between 228 and 318 bodies in Kinshasa and its outskirts and evacuated wounded civilians to local medical facilities. Reports from theUnited Nations Special Rapporteur and theUnited Nations Mapping Team indicate that the security situation deteriorated further between May and June 1997.[67] During this period, AFDL and RPA units, often with the participation of civilians, carried outpublic executions, frequently incinerating the bodies in neighborhoods such asMasina,Matete, and Kingabwa (Limete commune). At the GLM (Groupe Litho Moboti) building, detainees, many of them former members of theZairean Armed Forces (Forces Armées Zaïroises; FAZ) or political opponents, were routinely executed and their bodies discarded in theCongo River, a practice halted only after intervention by human rights advocates alerted by local fishermen.[67] In September 1997, the security crisis in Kinshasa was compounded by cross-border shelling fromBrazzaville. Armed factions involved in a separate conflict in Brazzaville launched artillery fire into Kinshasa between 29 September and 1 October, killing at least 21 civilians. In retaliation, FAC and RPA forces shelled Brazzaville for two consecutive days.[67]
Systematic torture, detention conditions, and crackdowns on political opposition
In June and July 1997, detainees inmilitary prisons atKokolo andTshatshi camps suffered ill-treatment that led to numerous deaths from torture, disease, and medical neglect.[67] Reports from late 1997 indicate that at least 24 wounded former members of theRwandan Armed Forces (Forces Armées Rwandaises, ex-FAR) disappeared after being transferred from hospitals to military camps, where they were subjected to threats and degrading treatment, while the militarization of Kinshasa's public life continued under the new regime, as units of theCongolese Air Force (Force Aérienne Congolaise, FAC) and the RPA, particularly the youngchild soldiers known asKadogo, imposed harsh disciplinary measures on civilians, including public floggings and whippings with thechicotte, a "leather-thonged whipping device". These punishments often resulted in severe internal injuries and deaths due to internal bleeding.[67]
Beginning in June 1997, the new authorities ordered ex-FAZ to undergo political re-education atKitona military base inBas-Congo (nowKongo Central), and in their absence, soldiers from the newly formed FAC and RPA occupied military camps in Kinshasa, including CETA and Tshatshi, where they raped large numbers of women and girls, many of whom were family members of ex-FAZ soldiers. Victims were often subjected tosexual slavery andforced domestic labor.[67] AtKokolo Military Camp, similar atrocities happened, includinggang rapes and the random abduction andassault of women in nearbyquartiers, while at a location known as "Camp Américain", ferocious crimes were reported, such as the case of a girl who was gang-raped, tortured, and had hotwax poured over hergenitals.[67]Violence against women extended outside military compounds, as numerous reports from the period reveal that FAC and RPA soldiers carried out systematic sexual violence across Kinshasa, including againstsex workers and womendetained arbitrarily.[67]
Opposition activists and their families were frequently subjected to harassment, arbitrary arrest, and torture. Women related to political figures were especially vulnerable to sexual violence during state crackdowns.[67] Activists from major opposition parties such as theParti Lumumbiste Unifié (PALU),Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social (UDPS), and theFront pour la Survie de la Démocratie au Congo (FSDC) were frequent targets. In July 1997, FAC and RPA soldiers killed between one and four PALU members during a protest crackdown and injured several others.[67] The residence of PALU leaderAntoine Gizenga was ransacked, resulting in the death of an activist and the severe beating of six more. Documented cases of torture and rape continued into 1998. Notably, on 10 December 1997, two sisters of the FSDC president were gang-raped by FAC and RPA personnel.[67] The FSDC leader himself, a former Mobutu loyalist, was arrested in February 1998 and subjected to torture while detained in the central prison and the Mikonga military training facility.[67]
Visit of PresidentLaurent-Désiré Kabila toJoão de Deus Pinheiro, the European Commissioner for Relations with Parliament, Culture, and Audiovisual, to discuss the armed conflict raging in the country, November 1998.
TheSecond Congo War also plunged Kinshasa into a period of insecurity and military conflict after a dramatic breakdown in relations between President Laurent-Désiré Kabila and his former allies in Rwanda and Uganda, whom Kabila accused of undermining Congolese sovereignty and holding ambitions to carry out acoup d'état.[69][70] Allegations also surfaced that theUnited States had provided indirect support to Rwanda during this period, including claims ofmilitary training by the Rwanda Interagency Assessment Team (RIAT), ostensibly to secure access to the DRC's vast mineral wealth.[71][72] American individuals and institutions, such as Roger Winter of theU.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, were further implicated in allegedly abetting insurgent activities.[71] In response to these tensions, President Kabila dismissed Rwandan GeneralJames Kabarebe from his position asChief of Staff and demanded the withdrawal of all Rwandan military personnel from Congolese territory.[69][70] This move provoked a swift counteroffensive, as Rwanda and Uganda backed the formation of a new rebel group, theRassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD), which launched its rebellion from the city of Goma on 2 August 1998.[73] The insurrection was spearheaded by mutinous units within the Congolese armed forces in coordination with Rwandan, Ugandan, and Burundian troops. Within weeks, RCD forces had captured large swathes of territory in the eastern and northern parts of the country, including regions ofNorth andSouth Kivu,Orientale Province, NorthKatanga, andÉquateur Province.[73] Their advance toward Kinshasa and the western province of Bas-Congo was halted by military intervention fromAngola andZimbabwe, both of which deployed troops in support of Kabila's government.[73]
This escalation led to the effective partition of the DRC, as Kabila's administration, reinforced by military contingents from Angola, Zimbabwe,Namibia,Chad, andSudan, retained authority over the western and central regions. Conversely, the eastern part of the country fell under the control of the RCD's military wing, theArmée Nationale Congolaise (ANC), which was supported by Rwandan, Ugandan, and Burundian forces.[73] In response, Kabila aligned with a range of non-state actors and militias, notably theMayi-Mayi as well as Rwandan and Burundian Hutu rebel groups including theForces pour la Défense de la Démocratie (FDD) and theArmée de Libération du Rwanda (ALiR), the latter composed in part of former members of the Rwandan Armed Forces and theInterahamwe militia. Uganda, while occupying substantial portions of Orientale Province, simultaneously sponsored the establishment of theMouvement pour la Libération du Congo (MLC), under the leadership ofJean-Pierre Bemba, to administer the Ugandan-controlled regions of Équateur.[73] Diverging strategic interests between Uganda and Rwanda eventually led to a split within the RCD itself, giving rise to two rival factions: the Rwanda-aligned RCD–Goma and the Uganda-supported RCD–ML.[73] Despite their military superiority, these rebel coalitions faced persistent challenges in exerting full administrative and security control over rural areas, where they were met with sustained resistance from local militias, interethnic hostility, and community mistrust.[74]
By late August 1998, forces of the ANC, RPA, and UPDF clashed with troops from FAC and theZimbabwe Defence Forces (ZDF) for control of the capital. The ZDF employed heavy artillery to bombard densely populated areas, includingKimbanseke,Masina,Ndjili, and the Kingatoko village, which located near the Bas-Congo border.[75] These attacks resulted in the deaths of approximately 50 civilians and left 282 wounded during the night of 27 to 28 August, leading to mass displacement as residents fled to safer parts of the city, while the ZDF's indiscriminate use of heavy weapons struck hospitals, religious buildings, and other non-combatant infrastructure without differentiating between military and civilian targets.[75] In some instances, Congolese military authorities exacerbated civilian casualties by ordering residents to remain in their homes.[75] On 28 August, inMont-Ngafula, FAC soldiers brutally murdered two Red Cross volunteers, one by crushing his skull, as they tried to rescue victims in Mitendi and Mbenseke, which left several others injured.[75] Rebel forces also targeted critical infrastructure, including theInga hydroelectric power station inBas-Congo, which was seized by ANC, RPA, and UPDF troops on 13 August 1998 and had its turbines stopped for three weeks, cutting electricity and water to Kinshasa and parts of Bas-Congo and severely disrupting hospitals.[75]
Human rights abuses, crackdowns on Cabindan separatists, and Joseph Kabila's rise to power
Political opponents and civilians were subject to extrajudicial executions, torture, rape, and arbitrary detentions.[75] Between August 1998 and January 2001, approximately 50 incident reports were submitted to theUnited Nations Commission on Human Rights and its mechanisms, including theWorking Groups on arbitrary detention and enforced disappearances, and the Special Rapporteurs on torture and extrajudicial killings. Members of opposition parties such as the UDPS and PALU were particularly targeted, often detained in notorious facilities including thePolice d'intervention rapide (PIR), theDirection des renseignements généraux et services spéciaux (DRGS, also called Kin Mazière), IPKIN (ex-Circo), andKokolo Military Camp.[75] A major crackdown happened on 28 October 2000, when President Kabila's security forces arrested at least 93 people, including 60 soldiers and 33 civilians from North Kivu, South Kivu, andManiema, accused of plotting acoup d'état involving Anselme Masasu Nindaga, a founding AFDL member; some detainees weresummarily executed or tortured to death, while others were imprisoned for over three years and only released following a government-issued general amnesty. In line with its military alliance with Angola, the Kinshasa government also targeted members of theFront for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), a separatist movement seeking independence for the Angolan province of Cabinda, shutting down FLEC offices in Kinshasa between 1998 and 1999, arresting numerous Cabindan militants, many of whom were tortured, forcibly transferred to Angola, or remain missing.[75]
After theassassination of President Laurent-Désiré Kabila on 16 January 2001, his son and successor,Joseph Kabila, was quickly installed as president and prioritized the de-escalation of armed conflict and the promotion of national reconciliation, particularly through the organization of the Inter-Congolese Dialogue (ICD), which brought together government representatives, rebel movements, opposition parties, and civil society in a comprehensive peace process.[76] In March 2001, theUnited Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) deployed personnel to key conflict zones to monitor compliance with theLusaka Ceasefire Agreement, yet violence continued, particularly in North and South Kivu, where clashes involved groups such as the Mayi-Mayi militias, FDD, ALiR, and ANC.[76] The ICD officially opened on 25 February 2002 inSun City, South Africa, and a preliminarypower-sharing agreement was signed on 19 April 2002 between Joseph Kabila andJean-Pierre Bemba, though it faced opposition from RCD-Goma and parties including the UDPS.[76] Progress continued with a major diplomatic breakthrough on 30 July 2002, when Rwanda and the DRC signed a peace accord inPretoria, agreeing that Rwanda would withdraw its troops in exchange for the disarmament and repatriation of Hutu militias such as theFDLR, followed by a similar agreement with Uganda inLuanda on 6 September 2002 to withdraw Ugandan forces and stabilizeIturi Province.[76]
By year's end, foreign troops from Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Angola, and Namibia had begun withdrawing, a move that culminated in the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement in Pretoria on 17 December 2002, which established a transitional power-sharing government and integrated former belligerents into aunified national army.[76] Despite ongoing challenges, the process advanced with the ICD ratifying the agreement on 1 April 2003 in Sun City, along with a memorandum on transitional governance and armed group integration, and transitional institutions were formally inaugurated on 30 June 2003.[76] Nevertheless, President Kabila, who remained in power until 2019, faced persistent opposition in Kinshasa, with his controversial victory in the2006 presidential election triggering widespread unrest that prompted the deployment ofEuropean Union forces to supportMONUSCO in maintaining order,[77][78] and another unrest emerged in 2016 when theIndependent National Electoral Commission announced a two-year delay in holding new presidential elections, a decision that ignited mass protests in September and December marked by street barricades, violent clashes, and a high civilian death toll.[78][79]
The Congo River, Africa's second-longest river after theNile, has the continent's highestdischarge and serves as a critical transportation route across much of the Congo Basin, with river barges navigable between Kinshasa andKisangani and along several tributaries. It is also a significant source ofhydroelectric power, with the potential downstream of Kinshasa to generate electricity sufficient for roughly half of Africa's population.[83]
Topographically, Kinshasa has amarshy,alluvial plain, with altitudes ranging from 275 to 300 meters, along with hilly terrain that elevates from 310 to 370 meters.[84][82][85] It has four principal features: theMalebo Pool, a largewater body with islands andislets; the Kinshasa Plain, a highly urbanizable area prone to drainage problems; theterrace, a series of lowridges overlooking the plain; and the hills area, marked by deep valleys andcirque-shaped formations.[82]
The Malebo Pool extends roughly 35 kilometers long and 25 kilometers wide, bordered byNgaliema in the west andMaluku in the east, and passes through othercommunes includingGombe,Barumbu,Limete,Masina, andNsele.[82] The Kinshasa Plain has a banana-like shape and is surrounded by eastward-oriented hills. Comprising mainlysandy alluvial deposits, this plain covers an area of about 20,000 hectares and hosts some of the city's most densely populated and urbanized communes,[82][86] such as Limete,Kalamu,Bandalungwa,Ngiri-Ngiri,Kinshasa, Barumbu, andLingwala. Despite its urban potential, the plain is highly vulnerable to seasonalflooding andwaterlogging due to inadequatedrainage infrastructure, with recurrent inundation occurring during therainy season.[86]
Sunset along the banks of the Congo River in Kinshasa
The terrace is mainly situated in the city's western expanse, betweenN'djili andMont-Ngafula. It comprises stony blocks of softsandstone andsilica-covered yellowclay, topped with brownsilt, and ranges from 10 to 25 meters in height. It retains vestiges of an ancient surface.[82] The hills area commences several kilometers from the Malebo Pool and is characterized by deep valleys and cirque-shaped formations. These hills reach heights surpassing 700 meters and exhibit gentle, rounded contours sculpted by local rivers.[82] While their eastern counterparts may reflect remnants of theBatéké Plateau, their origins in the west and south remain enigmatic.[82] This region forms a natural amphitheater shaped by rivererosion processes, which have been exacerbated by anthropogenic activities, often resulting in significantenvironmental degradation.[86] Communes located within or adjacent to these hilly areas include Mont-Ngafula,Bumbu,Selembao,Kisenso, and Ngaliema. In addition,Makala andNgaba, although partially located within the plains, gradually ascend into the adjacent highlands.[86]
Kinshasa's hydrographic landscape is defined by an intricate and predominantlydendritic network of rivers and valleys that converge toward Pool Malebo. This fluvial system, which predominantly flows from the southern and southwestern highlands toward the north and northeast, is shaped by the region's topographical gradient and its underlying lithological structure.[87] The city's current hydrological dynamics are the cumulative result of long-termtectonic shifts,sedimentary processes, andclimatic variability that have defined the development ofriver systems overgeological time scales.[87]
The hydrographic system is composed of two main categories of rivers:allochthonous (originating outside the city) and autochthonous (local or internal to the city). The allochthonous rivers, which include theN'djili, N'sele, and the Pool Malebo, form the city's eastern and northern boundaries.[87] These rivers have their sources far beyond the city's southern hills and generally flow in a south-to-north direction. The N'djili River, in particular, is prone to recurrentseasonalflooding in its lower reaches, frequently disrupting critical infrastructure.[87] In contrast, the autochthonous rivers, such as the Funa,Lukunga, Bombo, Mai-Ndombe, and Mbale, are generated from localized watersheds scattered throughout the urban area.[87][82][88][89] These rivers often carve deeply incised valleys, especially in the elevated southern regions. The Funa River is commonly but inaccurately referred to as theKalamu, a misnomer derived from theTeke-Humbu term for "watercourse".[87]
The current hydrographic network overlays an ancient system, likely dating back to theTertiary period, which originally drained from south to north but was subsequently modified by tectonic deformation following the lateCretaceouspeneplanation. These geodynamic changes reoriented some rivers east-west in the eastern parts of theCongo Basin and west-east in the west.[87] Traces of this paleonetwork persist in the form of broad, flat-bottomed valleys known asdambos ordembos, which emerged during theHolocene epoch. Characterized by diffuse channels and lacking pronouncedriverbeds, these depressions often remainwaterlogged throughout the year due to the persistentupwelling of thegroundwatertable.[87] In recent centuries, however, increased hydrological stress, marked by heightened peakrunoff, has induced the incision of more distinct channels within these formerlymarshy landscapes.[87] This hydrological transformation is evidenced by a marked rise in surface runoff and a reduction ininfiltration retention, resulting in flashier hydrographs, more frequent flood events, and acceleratederosional processes.[87] Recent studies estimate Kinshasa's runoff coefficient has increased to approximately 13%, a stark contrast to the near-zero levels before urban expansion andland-use change.[87]
Closely connected to the surface drainage network are the city's groundwater systems, particularly the perchedaquifers found in its permeablesandstone substratum.[87] These aquifers, often extending beyond the limits of their corresponding surfacecatchments, are sustained by deeppercolation facilitated by the sandy and porous characteristics of the regional soils.[87] During thedry season, rivers are primarily fed by these underground aquifers, which are recharged during therainy season. Early seasonal rains are absorbed into the soil and do not contribute to surface runoff until the retention threshold is surpassed, at which point excess water seeps downward to replenish groundwater reserves.[87] The region's highsoil permeability also facilitates the formation of erosion cirques, particularly on steep slopes where groundwater undercutting and concentrated surface runoff progressively destabilize hillsides, often culminating inlandslides.[87] These geomorphic hazards have become increasingly pronounced in the city's rapidly urbanizing fringe zones, where informal settlement expansion,deforestation, and inadequateland-use planning intensify environmental vulnerability.[87]
The city's soils predominantly belong to the Arenoferrasol classification,[90][91] characterized by fine-texturedsands withclay content typically below 20%, loworganic matter, and saturated absorbent complexes.[82] These soils has a strongacidity and are chemically deficient.[87] Despite their limited nutrient availability, they experience regular rainfall for approximately eight to nine months annually, resulting in significant leaching and intensehydrolysis of soilminerals. This extended exposure to precipitation adversely affectssoil fertility and agricultural potential.[87]
Geologically, Kinshasa is situated on aPrecambrian basement complex, mainly composed of finely stratified redsandstone that often containsfeldspar, visible at the base of the rapids near Mount Ngaliema and south of the N'djili River, where the rock shows strong resistance to erosion.[82]
The soil is shaped by these geological variations:schisto-limestone formations, along with olderlithologies associated with the West-Congolian Orogeny, generate yellow, clay-rich soils that are largely sterile and exhibit low permeability proportional to their sand content, while schist-sandstone and clay-limestone substrata produce yellow to light brown clayey sands with slightly better permeability but minimal fertility.[87] Fertile soils are primarily located withinalluvial andcolluvial deposits, where sediment accumulation enhances nutrient content and moisture retention.[87]
In elevated terrains and along the slopes of deeply incised valleys, hydric erosion actively reshapes the schist-sandstone relief and ancientmassifs. In these areas, soils are predominantly grayish sandy or clay-sandy in texture.[87] In lower-lying regions, a distinctive local material known asLemba sand is prevalent, although certain pockets of clay-sandy soils yield improved crop outcomes.[87]
Vegetation consists of galleryforests,savannas, and semi-aquatic toaquatic plant communities, particularly within the valleys surrounding the Pool Malebo.[82] The hilly zones of the region were originally dominated by grassland species, notablyLoudetia demeusei andSchizachyrium semiberbe, which are characteristic tufted hemicryptophytes.[87] However, the natural vegetation has undergone substantial transformation due toanthropogenic influences, most notablyurban sprawl. As the city expanded, inhabitants introduced a range offruit-bearing trees andornamental plants, often cultivated as living hedges.[87]
The gallery forests, typically aligned along principal watercourses and occupying humid valleys associated with the Guineo-Congolese ombrophile-type, have experienced progressive degradation.[82] These once-continuous forest belts have been reduced to fragmented pre-forest fallows, consisting ofsecondary growths of varying maturity and structure.[82] Historical vegetation mapping reveals that Kinshasa'sforest cover declined significantly over the latter half of the 20th century: from 46% in 1960 to 36% in 1982, and plummeting further to just 15% by 1987.[87] In parallel, the coverage of forest–savanna mosaics and terrestrialgrassland formations expanded, rising from 48% in 1960 to 56% in 1982, and reaching 64% by 1987.[87] In contrast, areas dominated by aquatic andswamp vegetation remained relatively stable throughout this period.[87]
Kinshasa is a city of sharp contrasts, with affluent residential and commercial areas and three universities alongside sprawling slums.[92] The older and wealthier part of the city (ville basse) is located on a flat area ofalluvial sand and clay near the river, while many newer areas are found on theeroding red soil of surrounding hills.[2][77] Older parts of the city were laid out on a geometric pattern, withde facto racial segregation becomingde jure in 1929 as the European and African neighborhoods grew closer together.City plans of the 1920s–1950s featured acordon sanitaire or buffer between the white and black neighborhoods, which included the central market as well as parks and gardens for Europeans.[93]
Urban planning in post-independence Kinshasa has been limited. TheMission Française d'Urbanisme drew up some plans in the 1960s which envisioned a greater role forautomobile transportation but did not predict the city's significant population growth. Thus much of theurban structure has developed without guidance from a master plan. According toUN-Habitat, the city is expanding by eight square kilometers per year. It describes many of the new neighborhoods asslums, built in unsafe conditions with inadequate infrastructure.[94] Nevertheless, spontaneously developed areas have in many cases extended thegrid street plan of the original city.[92]
Kinshasa is both a city (ville in French) and a province, one of the 26provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Nevertheless, it has city subdivisions and is divided into 24communes (municipalities), which in turn are divided into 369 quarters and 21 embedded groupings.[95]Maluku, the rural commune to the east of the urban area, accounts for 79% of the 9,965 km2 (3,848 sq mi) total land area of the city-province,[28] with a population of 200,000–300,000.[92] The communes are grouped into four districts which are not in themselves administrative divisions.
Under theKöppen climate classification, Kinshasa has atropical wet and dry climate (Aw). Its lengthy rainy season spans from October through May, with a relatively short dry season, between June and September. Kinshasa lies south of theequator, so its dry season begins around its winter solstice, which is in June. This is in contrast to African cities further north featuring this climate where the dry season typically begins around December. Kinshasa's dry season is slightly cooler than its wet season, though temperatures remain relatively constant throughout the year.
Climate data for Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo
The city has experienced rapid demographic growth since the early 1900s, driven bymigration from rural areas,natural population increase, andpolitical instability. Its population grew from 5,000 in 1889 to 10,000 in 1910 and 39,530 in 1930, with an annual rise of roughly 4,700 people.[105][106] Between 1935 and 1945, the growth rate rose from 1.1% to 1.5% annually due to wartime economic mobilization,[106] and the 1940s saw the population expand from 50,000 to more than 200,000.[107] By the timeCongo gained independence in 1960, Kinshasa covered 5,500 hectares and had 400,000 residents. Subsequent decades saw increased urban migration, conflict-related displacements, and a 3.8% annual growth rate, bringing the population to 2.6 million in 1984,[108][109] 5.3–7.3 million in 2005,[92] and nearly 12 million by 2015.[106]
According toUnited Nations Human Settlements Programme, the city receives an average of 390,000 new migrants annually, with many fleeing conflict or economic hardship.[111] Projections anticipate that Kinshasa's metropolitan population will reach 35 million by 2050, 58 million by 2075, and 83 million by 2100, making it one of the largest projected urban areas on the planet.[112]
The original inhabitants of Kinshasa included the Humbu,Teke, andBamfununga, alongside theYaka and Banunu Bobangi fromKongo Central and the river-tradingBayanzi. WhenHenry Morton Stanley arrived at thePool Malebo, these groups formed the majority of the population, but as the area's influence grew, additional Congolese and African groups, including theLari from the Republic of the Congo and the Zombo from Angola, were drawn in, often by commercial opportunities.[113] These newcomers settled on Humbu lands, where they established small villages such as Mikwa, Ngabwa, Ndolo, and Mfumo, some of which later developed into larger settlements. The Teke, who were "neither very mercantile nor warlike", were welcomed by the Humbu for protection against neighboring populations.[113] Disputes arose, however, when chief Ngaliema ceded Humbu land to Stanley without consulting its traditional owners, which, according to scholars Sylvain Shomba Kinyamba, François Mukoka Nsenda, Donatien Olela Nonga, T.M. Kaminar, and W. Mbalanda, demonstrates that the Teke were not landowners in the same way as the Humbu and the Bamfunuga.[113] The establishment of Pool Malebo and the subsequent growth of Kinshasa drew Congolese from various regions, as well asWest Africans, Europeans, and Asians, who all sought employment as Kinshasa developed.[113]
The city'sinternal migration began during the colonial era and intensified after independence in 1960. Waves of Congolese from various provinces moved to Kinshasa in search of economic opportunity, political stability, and access to education and services.[113] During the colonial era, significant migrations happened along two main routes: the river route for populations from the north and center of the Congo River, and the road route throughBandundu and Kongo Central. This movement intensified after independence and peaked during the political transition of the 1990s and the First and Second Congo Wars in the east, which transformed Kinshasa into a refuge for displaced populations from across the country.[113]
A woman dressed in a traditional African dress with a bright pink headscarf beside her young daughter wearing a maroonhijab and a patterned skirt in Kinshasa.
Beyond domestic migrations, Kinshasa has historically attracted transnational populations, including the Lari, who settled on fertile, vacant land and were the first to introduce various vegetables, such as cabbage, carrots, tomatoes, andcucumbers. TheCoastmen, orNdingari, a term that refers to West African migrants from present-dayNigeria,Ghana,Mali,Senegal,Benin,Guinea, andTogo.[113] Predominantly Muslim, they were primarily employed in public works, education, commerce, and other trades. They also influenced local culture by introducingpolygamy andwax-printed fabrics (pagnes wax).[113] Among the most demographically and culturally prominent expatriate communities are the Zombo, originally fromMaquela do Zombo in Angola'sUíge Province. As the most populous foreign African demographic in Kinshasa, they initially migrated as traders and laborers and, from the 1950s onward, were extensively conscripted to work at the port ofCITAS, where they primarily handled and transported colonial commodities such as palm derivatives, copal resin, cotton, and ivory.[113]
The Zombo became known for their physical endurance and work ethic, making them ideal laborers in the eyes of colonial authorities. Outside the workplace, they introduced door-to-door trade in indigenousquartiers, selling rice, doughnuts, and beans, a practice that later evolved into mobilestreet vending with handmade carts (pousse-pousse).[113] Their numbers escalated markedly during World War II, spurred by economic incentives in the Belgian Congo and by repressive governance in Angola underAntónio de Oliveira Salazar. The authoritarian policies of theEstado Novo regime, particularly the brutal enforcement tactics of thePIDE, pushed many Angolans to seek refuge in Kinshasa.[113] Belgian colonial authorities, constrained by porous borders and entrenched kinship networks among theBakongo across both nations, were largely ineffectual in stemming this border-crossing migration.[113] In contrast to other diasporic groups, the Zombo showed a strong tendency toward integration and avoided repatriation while raising successive generations in Kinshasa, where they became culturally and linguistically assimilated. Zombo youths were often enlisted in theForce Publique, while their elders became known for their frugality, temperance, and entrepreneurial self-sufficiency.[113] Over time, many transitioned into artisanal vocations and small-scale manufacturing, and introduced handcrafted women's footwear fashioned from repurposed automobile tires.[113]
Founded on 1 August 1881, as Léopold II's Station, Kinshasa has maintained a distinct administrative status over time, eventually becoming the administrative center for theStanley Pool District, Haute-N'sele, and Panzi-Kasaï.[120] ARoyal Decree promulgated on 11 April 1914 instituted a territorial reform in theBelgian Congo, reaffirming Kinshasa's dual role as the colonial capital and the central administrative seat for the districts ofBas-Congo,Kwango,Kasaï,Sankuru, and Léopoldville.[120] In 1941, Legislative Ordinance No. 293/AIMO of 25 June granted Kinshasa official city status and established an Urban Committee. Following Congolese independence, the colonial charter was replaced by the Fundamental Law of 19 May 1960, which designated Kinshasa as a neutral city and the political seat of national institutions.[120] This legal evolution culminated in Ordinance No. 68/024 of 20 January 1968, which granted Kinshasa the same politico-administrative status comparable to that of the provinces, thus expanding itscommunal subdivisions from 11 to 24. The advent of the Third Republic, as codified in the 2006 Constitution, officially institutionalized Kinshasa as a fully-fledged province.[120]
Pursuant to Article 2 of Law No. 08/012 of 31 July 2008, a province is defined as a political and administrative component of the national territory endowed with legal personality and managerial autonomy over its human, economic, financial, and technical resources.[121][120] Kinshasa exercises its constitutional mandates through two principal organs: theProvincial Assembly and the Provincial Government.[120] The Provincial Assembly serves as the city'slegislative body.[121][120] Comprising 48 deputies elected byuniversal suffrage, the Assembly is administratively structured with a Bureau composed of aPresident,Vice-President,Questeur,Rapporteur, and Deputy Rapporteur.[120]
The provincial executive branch is constituted by theGovernor, the Vice-Governor, and a cabinet of provincial ministers.[121][120] The Provincial Director, serving as the Governor's principal administrative advisor, oversees the coordination of fifty departmental directorates and inspectorates.[120] These entities function as provincial extensions of national ministries, entrusted with the territorial execution of state policies and regulatory directives.[120]
The 24 communes are recognized as administrative subdivisions of the city, each further divided into smaller entities known asquartiers (neighborhoods). As decentralized territorial entities (entités territoriales décentralisées, ETD), the communes have legal personality and administrative autonomy, and operates through two main governing bodies: theConseil Communal (Communal Council) and theCollège Exécutif Communal (Communal Executive College).[122]
TheConseil Communal serves as the commune'sdeliberative body. Its members, known asConseillers Communaux, are elected by directuniversal suffrage. The council deliberates on all matters of communal interest, including those of an economic, social, cultural, or technical nature. It also elects theBourgmestre (Mayor) andDeputy Mayor throughindirect suffrage and oversees the implementation of the executive's program of action.[122]
TheCollège Exécutif Communal is responsible for the management of the commune and the implementation of decisions made by the Communal Council. It comprises theBourgmestre, DeputyBourgmestre, and two communalaldermen (échevins communaux), all appointed based on merit, credibility, and community representation. This executive body coordinates all tasks of communal interest and is led by the Bourgmestre, assisted by the Deputy.[122]
Neighborhoods (quartiers) function as subunits of the communes. As of 2015, the 24 communes of Kinshasa are divided into approximately 310 neighborhoods. Thesequartiers vary in structure depending on whether they fall within formally planned urban zones or more informally developed areas.[122] Popularsemi-urban neighborhoods often exceed the size of planned residential districts and represent the core of the city's urban makeup. Each neighborhood is administered through a simplified structure that includes thechef de quartier (neighborhood chief), thechef de quartier adjoint (deputy), thesecrétaire du quartier (secretary), thechargé de la population (population officer), and two to three agentsrecenseurs (enumerators).[122] These officials are appointed by the Governor of Kinshasa and assigned to their respective territories.[122] In highly populated semi-urban neighborhoods, administrative overload is common due to insufficient infrastructure for public health, urban roads, potable water, and electricity, resources that remain concentrated in lower-density, affluent residential areas.[122]
In addition to state institutions, international andnon-governmental organizations exert significant influence on local development and governance.[126] The Belgian development agency,Enabel, has been a key actor since 2016 through its sponsorship of the Programme d'Appui aux Initiatives de Développement Communautaire (PAIDECO), a €6 million initiative aimed at stimulating economic development in the region. The initial implementation took place inKimbanseke, a densely populated hill commune with an estimated population of nearly one million.[127] In a strategic effort to address urban overcrowding and stimulate regional development, the provincial government established theComité Stratégique pour la Supervision du Projet d'Extension de la Ville de Kinshasa (CSSPEVK) in October 2023. The committee, under the leadership of a provincial coordinator, was tasked with overseeing the "Kinshasa Kia Mona" urban expansion project in the Maluku district.[128][129][130]
Street scenes in Kinshasa, Zaire, captured in 1973, by Dutch photographer Rob Mieremet.
Historically, Kinshasa experienced a period of robust economic growth driven predominantly by a flourishing industrial sector. During its economic peak, often nostalgically referred to aslabelle époque, the city's industrial activities spanned diverse domains includingfood processing,textiles,metallurgy, andassembly-line production.[131] These industries produced goods fordomestic consumption and international export. It was during this era that Kinshasa earned the affectionate monikersKin la belle,Kin-Kiese, andKin la joie.[131] By the 1970s, Kinshasa had become a critical economic hub in Zaire, employing approximately 25% of the country's salaried workforce and accounting for nearly half (50%) of the national wage bill. Surveys conducted between 1974 and 1977 indicated that 33.7% of Kinshasa's working population held positions as executives or skilled laborers, with respective shares of 6.5% and 27.2%.[131] In terms of industrial concentration, Kinshasa in 1977 accounted for 49.9% of the country'smanufactured industries.[86] It ranked second insecondary sector activity with 18%, followingKatanga, which held 67.3%. In thetertiary sector, Kinshasa ranked first with 27.3%, followed by Katanga at 22%. The city also hosted 22.8% of allregistered businesses nationwide, compared to 18% in Katanga.[86] By 1980, an estimated 412,000 people were in stable employment, supporting an average household of six. However, by the 1990s, inflation and economic deterioration significantly diminishedpurchasing power.[131] Studies revealed that by 1988, only 20% of workers could meet basicliving costs on their wages, and by 1990, Kinshasa had become more expensive to live in than other interior cities of the country.[131] In 1977, wages could cover 62% of basic needs and 51% of family needs; these figures declined steeply in the subsequent decades.[131]
Modern buildings on the outskirts of Kinshasa, ca. 1980–1993
The 1990s marked a particularly devastating decade for Kinshasa's economy, beginning with waves of looting in 1991 and 1992. These events inflicted severe damage on the city's economic infrastructure. In the aftermath of these upheavals, an estimated 300,000 executives and skilled workers lost their jobs, with no prospect of compensation.[131] According to the Agence Nationale des Entrepreneurs du Zaïre (ANEZA), Kinshasa lost approximately 100,000 jobs during this period. Subsequent years ofpolitical instability and warfare further paralyzed the city's already weakened economic sectors.[131] Since then, industrial activity in Kinshasa has largely stagnated or been dismantled altogether. The city's rapidly expanding population, combined with a shortage of economic reintegration mechanisms forunemployed graduates from technical and tertiary institutions, has worsened the unemployment crisis.[131] The dismantling of the industrial sector has been significant, with much of the wage-earning population absorbed into theinformal sector. This informal economy has now become the city's primary employment source, engaging nearly 70% of Kinshasa's total labor force.[131]
Marsavco
Companies, foreign exchange reserves, international support
Big manufacturing companies such as Marsavco S.A., All Pack Industries and Angel Cosmetics are located in the center of town (Gombe) in Kinshasa.
There are many other industries, such asTrust Merchant Bank, located in the heart of the city. Food processing is a major industry, and construction and other service industries also play a significant role in the economy.[132]
Despite housing only about 13% of the DRC's population, Kinshasa generates approximately 85% of the country'sgross domestic product.[94] A 2004 investigation found 70% of inhabitants employed informally, 17% in the public sector, 9% in the formal private sector, and 3% other, of a total 976,000 workers. Most new jobs are classified as informal.[92] By late 2022, the city'sforeign exchange reserves had improved significantly, surpassing $4.5 billion. The DRC maintains support and partnerships with major international organizations and financial institutions, including theIMF,World Bank,African Development Bank, theEuropean Union,China, and France.[133]
ThePeople's Republic of China has been heavilyinvolved in the Congo since the 1970s, when they financed the construction of thePalais du Peuple and backed the government against rebels in theShaba war. In 2007–2008 China and Congo signed an agreement for an $8.5 billion loan for infrastructure development.[134] In recent years, Chinese entrepreneurs have increasingly dominated local markets in Kinshasa, and gradually displacing in the process formerly successful Congolese, West African, Indian, and Lebanese merchants.[135]
Mean household spending in 2005 was the equivalent of US$2,150, amounting to $1 per day per person. The median household spending was $1,555, 66 cents per person per day. Among the poor, more than half of this spending goes to food, especially bread and cereal.[92]
Also located there is thePalais de Marbre, once a guest residence during Mobutu's rule and later the presidential residence underLaurent-Désiré Kabila.[136][137][138] Nearby stands theColonel Tshatshi Military Camp, which is situated onMount Ngaliema (formerly Mount Stanley), initially the residence of Léopoldville's colonial governor and later home to PresidentJoseph Kasa-Vubu after independence.[114] In 1966, President Mobutu renamed the site Mont Ngaliema and transformed it into a Presidential Park, landscaped by architectOlivier-Clément Cacoub and decorated with statues of figures such asLeopold II and Stanley, as well as theThéâtre de la Verdure amphitheater completed in 1970.[139][140] Ngaliema also includes theAfrican Union City, created in 1967 for theOAU summit, the Pioneers' Cemetery, remnants of colonial shipyards and port facilities, the Kintambo-Magasins commercial center, an old caravan route terminus, early communal buildings that once served as the region's first European hospital, artisanal furniture workshops usingkekeleliana, and natural sites known as the Symphonies Naturelles.[114]
Kintambo is also historically known as the site of the first contact with colonial powers. Situated at the base of Mount Ngaliema, it rapidly gained strategic and urban significance, becoming the first designatedcité indigène. Owing to its location and past, the commune preserves important memories of the city, particularly of Léo-Ouest. Numerous landmarks and historic buildings reflect Kinshasa's origins and colonial history, with the Kintambo Vélodrome Stadium, built in 1936, and Saint Francis Parish, established in 1939, standing out as particularly emblematic of the commune's heritage.[114] In Gombe, there are well-known primary and secondary schools founded during the colonial era, such asBoboto College, Bosangani High School (formerly Sacré-Cœur), the Gombe Institute (formerly the Royal Atheneum of Kalina), the Gombe Technical Institute, and Notre-Dame Institute. Apart from theAcadémie des Beaux-Arts, universities and other higher education institutions were created after independence. Beyond its scenic sunset views over the Congo River, Gombe hosts the nation's largest hotels and shopping complexes, including the Grand Hôtel de Kinshasa,Hotel Memling, Hotel Venus, Fleuve Congo Hotel, Empire Complex, and the Presidential Galleries. ThePalais de la Nation and theprime minister's office are also located here, along with the Nautic Club and the Kinshasa Yacht Club, which offerriver excursions.[114]
Kinshasa is the only one of the city's 24 communes to share its historical name with the capital itself, having been created at the start of the colonial period as acité indigène that functioned mainly as a residential area for African workers and later became home to some of the city's earliest public, sports, and leisure infrastructures, includingStade Cardinal Malula. It also has the oldestCatholic mission, Saint Peter's Church, which was founded in 1933. The historicKimwenza Catholic Mission, dating back to theCongo Free State era, is regarded as one of the city's major cultural landmarks, while theSainte Marie Mission, established in July 1893, laid the foundations for the colonial and present-dayeducation systems.[114] Mont-Ngafula tourist attractions include Lac Ma Vallée, Joli Camp Site, Auberge, thePetites Chutes de la Lukaya, Tilapia, andKasangulu. Along the Matadi Road, plaques, signposts, and scenic paths guide visitors to colonial-era villas. The area also hostsLola ya Bonobo, a sanctuary dedicated to protecting these endangered primates. Nsele encompasses two major tourist destinations, Kinkole and Nsele. Kinkole is primarily known for its famous dish, Maboké, a fish steamed in banana leaves, which has contributed significantly to its reputation.[114] Lemba gained prominence with the establishment ofLovanium University (now the University of Kinshasa), the country's first university, which was founded in 1954. It was also home to Kinshasa's earliest planned residentialquartiers, including Righini, where theTabernacle of the Disciples ofWilliam Marrion Branham is located. Mount Amba provides a panoramic view of Kinshasa.[114]
Limete was initially designed as a residential area for Europeans before evolving into the city's third-largest industrial hub after Gombe and Ngaliema. It hosts theLimete Tower and a 6.5-meter statue of national heroPatrice Lumumba. Kasa-Vubu follows a grid-based urban layout with numerous access roads and broad avenues. Many streets and squares bear names recalling the victories of theForce Publique during the 1940–45military campaigns, such as Victoire, Gambela, and Ethiopia. The commune also features Kimpwanza Square, a potent symbol of national independence.[114] Historically, it played a central role in political life, linked to leaders such as Joseph Kasa-Vubu and Gaston Diomi Ndongala of theABAKO party. BeforeMatonge's rise, Kasa-Vubu was Kinshasa's main nightlife hub. The Kasa-Vubu monument stands at the junction of Victoire and Assossa avenues. Kalamu, home to the busiest Matongequartier, is home to the Stade Tata Raphaël, famous for hosting the legendary boxing match between Muhammad Ali and George Foreman. Matonge is also a major hub of Kinshasa's music culture, building on the legacy of earlier pioneers such as Wendo Kolosoy and Le Grand Kallé. It gave rise to major musical bands includingQuartier Latin International,Viva La Musica, and Molokaï Village, and has landmarks such as Place des Artistes, shopping centers, and other entertainment venues.[114]
Kinshasa is home to several education institutes, covering a wide range of disciplines, includingcivil engineering,nursing, andjournalism. The city is also home to three large universities and an arts school:
The education system in DRC is plagued by low coverage, low quality and poor educational infrastructure, especially in rural areas. According to USAID (2018), 3.5 million children of primary school age are out of school, and 44% of those who do attend school started only after age six. Various statistical estimates by UNESCO, (2013) regarding secondary and tertiary education also reveal the difficulties facing the country. In DRC it is difficult to get a reliable estimate on the actual proportion of the population who can read and write, however, according to data from UIS (2016), the literacy rate of the population of 15 years and older in the country, is estimated to 77.04%. This rate is 88.5% for men and 66.5% for women. There is also a shortage of reading material, and certainly no culture of reading for pleasure.[144]
Kinshasa has a flourishing music scene which, since the 1960s, has operated under the patronage of the city's elite.[77] TheOrchestre Symphonique Kimbanguiste, formed in 1994, began using improved musical instruments and has since grown in means and reputation.[146]
A pop culture ideal type in Kinshasa is themikiliste, a fashionable person with money who has traveled to Europe. Adrien Mombele, a.k.a. Stervos Niarcos, and musicianPapa Wemba were early exemplars of the mikiliste style.[77]La Sape, a linked cultural trend also described asdandyism, involves wearing flamboyant clothing.[147]
TheOrchestre Symphonique Kimbanguiste, formed in 1994, began using improved musical instruments and has since grown in means and reputation.[146] Following the upheavals of the 1990s, the music scene evolved dramatically: while some artists turned toChristian gospel, others revivedindigenous traditions through thetradi-modern movement, led by bands like Swédé Swédé and supported by Belgian producerVincent Kenis.[153] This led to the acclaimedCongotronics album series, which introduced international audiences to bands likeKonono Nº1,Kasai Allstars,Staff Benda Bilili, andMbongwana Star, who performed using handmade instruments and rudimentary amplification.[153] In 2011, the DRC Music collective, curated byDamon Albarn, recorded the collaborative albumKinshasa One Two in just five days, bringing together over fifty Congolese musicians and international producers.[153] Among the featured artists wasJupiter Bokondji, whose band is Okwess International.
Since 2009, theRoyal Flemish Theatre in Brussels has organized the Connexion Kin arts festival inLimete.[153] In 2011, Belgian-Congolese rapper and singerBaloji, who was born inLubumbashi, returned to Kinshasa to record his albumKinshasa Succursale.[153]
A traditional sapeur dressed in an outfit made from pearls in kinshasa, February 2015
Kinshasa'sstreet art has earned international attention, with artists using murals and graffiti rich in color to convey strong social and political messages across the city.[163][164][165] A prominent pop culture figure in Kinshasa is themikiliste, a stylish, affluent individual who has traveled to Europe, with early representatives including Adrien Mombele, known as Stervos Niarcos, andPapa Wemba.[77] Closely connected to this image isLa Sape, a form of moderndandyism that is characterized by extravagant fashion.[147] Photographer Daniele Tamagni's bookGentlemen of Bacongo (2009) captures the distinctive style and personalities of Kinshasa'ssapeurs.[166][167]
WWE wrestlerShinsuke Nakamura uses a running knee strike, called theKinshasa, as his finisher, a reference to the eponymous city. The move was previously named asBomaye (which translated to "kill him") during his time inNew Japan Pro Wrestling but was renamed in 2016 when he was signed with the WWE for trademark reasons.[168] BothBomaye andKinshasa are homages to Nakamura's mentor,Antonio Inoki, who receivedBomaye as a nickname fromMuhammad Ali when Inoki and Ali fought in 1976, with Ali first hearingBomaye in Kinshasa during theRumble In The Jungle.[168]
Kinshasa serves as the nation's principal media hub, hosting the largest concentration of media outlets in the country. The primary languages used in media production are French and Lingala, with other indigenous languages seldom appearing.[171] Press freedom remains limited, with journalism subject to strict control and censorship. The 2023Press Freedom Index rated the Democratic Republic of the Congo at 48.55%.[172] State-run channels generally provide minimal political content, and restrictive regulations limitinvestigative journalism. In the early 2000s, especially during the political transition, Kinshasa's media scene grew rapidly. By 2004, the city had 23 radio stations and 26 TV stations, with the number of television broadcasters increasing dramatically to 63 by 2007.[171]
These outlets are primarily commercial, religious, or community-based and are often affiliated, formally or informally, with political figures or parties. For instance, Numerica TV is owned by Kibambi Shintwa and Kabeya Pindi Pasi, both of whom were candidates in the 2006 parliamentary elections. Mirador TV is owned by Michel Ladi Luya, a former Member of Parliament and newspaper publisher.[171][173] Digital Congo TV was co-founded byCroatian businessman Nicolas Vazonne andJaynet Kabila, twin sister of then-President Joseph Kabila.[171] Africa TV is associated withAzarias Ruberwa, a former vice president and2006 presidential candidate, andEugène Serufuli Ngayabaseka, the then-governor ofNorth Kivu. CCTV (Canal Congo Télévision) and Canal Kin are linked toJean-Pierre Bemba.[171] While many of these channels deny formal political affiliations, their ownership structures suggest otherwise.[171] Not all stations are politically aligned. Neutral and independent outlets such asAntenne A and Congoweb TV contribute to a more balanced media environment.RTNC1 remains the primary public broadcaster with nationwide reach, while other widely viewed stations includeRTGA (Radio Télévision Groupe L'Avenir), Digital Congo TV, Mirador TV, Congoweb TV, and Antenne A.[171]
Several prominent national radio and television stations are headquartered in Kinshasa. TheRTNC operates multiple channels, RTNC1, RTNC2, RTNC3, and RTNC4, providing news, cultural programming, and public service broadcasts. TheUN-supportedRadio Okapi, jointly managed withMONUSCO, is also based in the city and is widely regarded for its balanced reporting.[173][174] Other notable broadcasters include Top Congo FM, RTGA, Radio Télévision Message de Vie (RTMV), Raga FM, and Digital Congo FM. In addition to these, Kinshasa hosts a wide array of specialized and religious broadcasters, such as Radio Télévision Armée de l'Éternel (RTAE), Radio Télévision Sentinelle (RTS), Canal Chemin de Vérité et Vie (CVV), Radio Télévision Catholique Elikya (RTCE), Radio Parole de l'Éternel (RPE), and Radio Télé Assemblée Chrétienne (RTACK).[173][175][176][177] Community-based stations include Radio Shaloom Racha, Radio 7, Tam Tam Africain, Jo Dacosta FM, Afri Radio, and Mirador FM. International broadcasters such as theBBC (on 92.6 FM),Radio France Internationale (RFI), Africa Radio,China Radio International, andEuronews are also present and broadcast according to the editorial policies of their parent organizations.[173][171]
The print and digital media sector is equally diverse, with the capital being home to the state-owned news agencyAgence Congolaise de Presse (ACP) and a range of newspapers and online platforms. Among the most prominent publications areL'Avenir, L'Observateur,Le Potentiel,Le Phare,Le Soft,La Conscience, andLeCongolais.[178]
TheCentral Bank of the Congo has its headquarters on Boulevard Colonel Tshatshi, across the street from the Mausoleum of Laurent Kabila and the presidential palace.
Notable features of the city include the Gecamines Commercial Building (formerly SOZACOM) andHotel Memling;L'ONATRA, the building of the Ministry of Transport; the central market; theLimete Tower.
The city's infrastructure forrunning water and electricity is generally in bad shape.[179] Theelectrical network is in disrepair to the extent that prolonged and periodicblackouts are normal, and exposedlines sometimes electrify pools of rainwater.[77][92]
Regideso, the national public company with primary responsibility for water supply in the Congo, serves Kinshasa only incompletely, and without uniform quality. Other areas are served by decentralizedAssociations des Usagers des Réseau d'Eau Potable (ASUREPs).[109] Gombe uses water at a high rate (306 liters per day per inhabitant) compared to other communes (from 71 L/d/i in Kintambo down to 2 L/d/i in Kimbanseke).[92]
Since 2008, the provincial government has established several technicalpublic services, collectively known as "urban régies", which fall under the governor's authority. These include:[180][120]
The housing market has seen rising prices andrents since the 1980s. Houses and apartments in the central area are expensive, with houses selling for a million dollars and apartments going for $5000 per month. High prices have spread outward from the central area as owners and renters move out of the most expensive part of the city.Gated communities and shopping malls, built with foreign capital and technical expertise, began to appear in 2006.Urban renewal projects have led in some cases to violent conflict and displacement.[77][183] The high prices leave incoming refugees with few options for settlement besides illegalshantytowns such as Pakadjuma.[111] TheCité du Fleuve, an upmarket residential development, has had significant delays.[184] In 2005, 55% of households had televisions and 43% had mobile phones. 11% had refrigerators and 5% had cars.[92]
The city-province has 5000 km of roadways, 10% of which are paved. TheBoulevard du 30 Juin (Boulevard of 30 June) links the main areas of the central district of the city. Other roads also converge on Gombe. The east–west road network linking the more distant neighborhoods is weak and thus transit through much of the city is difficult.[92] The quality of roads has improved somewhat, developed in part with loans from China, since 2000.[77]
The public bus company for Kinshasa, created in 2003, is Transco (Transport au Congo).[185] Kinshasa is the largest city in the world without a dedicatedbus terminal for intercity services.[186]
Several companies operate registered taxis and taxi-buses, identifiable by their yellow color. In addition, an app-based taxi hailing service was introduced in 2023.[187]
Kinshasa is located alongNational Road 1, the highway between the provinces of Kongo Central andHaut-Katanga. It connects the capital with other cities in the western and southern DRC, includingLubumbashi.[188][189] A recent complete reconstruction of the section between Kinshasa and the provinces of Kwango and Kwilu significantly improved road quality and reduced travel time from up to a week down to six hours.[190] Kinshasa does not have direct road connections to many provincial capitals, especially those in the north.[191]
The city has two airports:N'djili Airport (FIH) is the main airport with connections to other African countries as well as to Istanbul, Brussels, Paris and some other destinations.N'Dolo Airport, located close to downtown, is used for domestic flights only with small turboprop aircraft. Several international airlines serve Ndjili Airport includingKenya Airways,South African Airways,Ethiopian Airlines,Brussels Airlines,Air France andTurkish Airlines. An average of ten international flights depart each day from N'djili Airport.[192] A small number of airlines provide domestic service from Kinshasa, for exampleCongo Airways andCAA. Both offer scheduled flights from Kinshasa to a limited number of cities inside DR Congo.[193]
A memorial atKinshasa train station remembering those who died during the construction of the railroad
Plans to build an urban railway system in Kinshasa called MetroKin were announced in 2023. The start of service is not expected until 2026 at the earliest.[194]
TheKinshasa central station is in the riverside commune of Gombe,[195] and is on theMatadi–Kinshasa Railway, a line connecting it with the country's main Atlantic seaport ofMatadi and the province of Kongo Central.[196][197] The railway reopened in 2025 for passenger service multiple times per week, after five years of renovation.[198] Before the reopening, service was provided twice daily along the smaller section between Kinshasa andKasangulu.[194][197]
There is no rail direct connection between Kinshasa and the interior of the DRC, though it is historically connected by river transport toIlebo,Kasaï Province, which is the start of the line south to Lubumbashi and theZambian border.[199][200]
Kinshasa is the majorriver port of the Congo, which handles over two million tons of freight annually. Rivers are the main connection of Kinshasa with much of the country due to the fractured and poor state of the road network, and the limited extent of rail network.[191] The port, called 'Le Beach Ngobila' extends for about 7 km (4 mi) along the river, comprising scores ofquays andjetties with hundreds of boats and barges tied up. Ferries cross the river toBrazzaville, a distance of about 4 km (2 mi). River transport also connects to dozens of ports upstream, such asKisangani andBangui.
Since theSecond Congo War, the city has been striving to recover from disorder, with many youth gangs living and operating from Kinshasa's poorer areas.[201] The U.S. State Department in 2010 informed travelers that Kinshasa and other major Congolese cities are generally safe for daytime travel, but to beware of robbers, especially in traffic jams and in areas near hotels and stores.[202]
Some sources say that Kinshasa is extremely dangerous, with one source giving a homicide rate of 112 per 100,000 people per year.[203] Another source cites a homicide rate of 12.3 per 100,000.[204] By some accounts, crime in Kinshasa is not so rampant, due to relatively good relations among residents and perhaps to the severity with which even petty crime is punished.[77]
While the military and National Police operate their own jails in Kinshasa, the main detention facility under the jurisdiction of the local courts is the Kinshasa Penitentiary and Re-education center in Makala. This prison houses much more than its nominal capacity of 1,000 inmates. In 2024, the population of Makala Prison was reported at 15,000.[205]The Congolese military intelligence organization, Détection Militaire des Activités Anti-Patrie (DEMIAP) operates the Ouagadougou prison inKintambo commune with notorious cruelty.[204][206]
In the 2010s, street children or "Shegués", often orphaned, are subject to abuse by the police and military.[207] Of the estimated 20,000 children living on Kinshasa's streets, almost a quarter are beggars, some are street vendors and about a third have some kind of employment.[208] Some have fled from physically abusive families, notably step-parents, others were expelled from their families as they were believed to be witches,[209] and have become outcasts.[210][211][212]
Street children are mainly boys,[213] but the percentage of girls is increasing according to UNICEF. Ndako ya Biso provides support for street children, including overnight accommodation for girls.[214] There are also second generation street children.[215]
These children have been the object of considerable outside study.[216]
^abcdefghijklmnKinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015)."Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa"(PDF) (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 9–28.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved4 August 2023.
^abMoorsel, Hendrik van (1968).Atlas de préhistoire de la plaine de Kinshasa (in French). Kinshasa, Belgian Congo: Université Lovanium.
^abBoya, Loso Kiteti (2010).D.R. Congo. Bloomington, Indiana: Xlibris Corporation. p. 175.ISBN9781450082495.Archived from the original on 16 October 2023. Retrieved19 September 2023.
^"Kinshasa: Ville Créative de la Musique" [Kinshasa: Creative City of Music](PDF).en.unesco.org (in French). Paris, France. 2016–2019. p. 3.Archived(PDF) from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved24 February 2024.
^Moulin, Léon de Saint (1971).Les anciens villages des environs de Kinshasa (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Université Lovanium.Archived from the original on 25 May 2024. Retrieved9 April 2024.
^Kinyamb, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. (2015)."Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa" [Monograph of the city of Kinshasa](PDF) (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). p. 43.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved9 April 2024.
^Daouda Gary-Tounkara,1964 : le Mali réinsère ses ressortissants expulsés, In: Plein droit 2016/1 (n° 108), GISTI, 2016, p. 35-38
^United States. Central Intelligence Agency,Daily Report, Foreign Radio Broadcasts, Issues 11–15, 1967
^"Congo Cities Get Back Old Names",Vancouver Sun, 3 May 1966, p.11
^abcdefghijklmKinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015)."Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa"(PDF) (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 55–59.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved4 August 2023.
^"Kinshasa, hier et aujourd'hui…" [Kinshasa, yesterday and today…].E-Journal Kinshasa (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 4 August 2020. Retrieved10 July 2025.
^abcdefghijklmnKinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015)."Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa"(PDF) (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 9–12.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved2 May 2024.
^Monographie de la province du Maniema (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: République démocratique du Congo, Ministères de l'agriculture et de l'élevage. 1998. p. 9.Archived from the original on 25 May 2024. Retrieved2 May 2024.
^African Soils: Volumes 16-18. Paris, France: Commission Scientifique, technique et de la recherche de l'Organisation de l'unité Africaine. 1971. p. 169.Archived from the original on 25 May 2024. Retrieved20 May 2024.
^Luce Beeckmans & Liora Bigon, "The making of the central markets of Dakar and Kinshasa: from colonial origins to the post-colonial period";Urban History 43(3), 2016;doi:10.1017/S0963926815000188.
^abInnocent Chirisa, Abraham Rajab Matamanda, & Liaison Mukarwi, "Desired and Achieved Urbanisation in Africa: In Search of Appropriate Tooling for a Sustainable Transformation"; in Umar Benna & Indo Benna, eds.,Urbanization and Its Impact on Socio-Economic Growth in Developing Regions; IGI Global, 2017,ISBN9781522526605; pp.101–102.
^abcKinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015)."Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa"(PDF) (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). p. 37.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved4 August 2023.
^abcKinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015)."Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa"(PDF) (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 40–41.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved4 August 2023.
^abcdefghijklmnKinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. (2015)."Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa"(PDF) (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 31–36.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved4 August 2023.
^Nadeau, Jean-Benoit (2006).The Story of French. St. Martin's Press. p. 301; 483.ISBN9780312341831.
^Trefon, Theodore (2004).Reinventing Order in the Congo: How People Respond to State Failure in Kinshasa. London and New York: Zed Books. p. 7.ISBN9781842774915.Archived from the original on 30 December 2023. Retrieved31 May 2009.A third factor is simply a demographic one. At least one in ten Congolese live in Kinshasa. With its population exceeding eleven million, it is the second-largest city in sub-Saharan Africa (after Lagos). It is also the second-largest French-speaking city in the world, according to Paris (even though only a small percentage of Kinois speak French correctly),
^Manning, Patrick (1998).Francophone sub-Saharan Africa: Democracy and Dependence, 1985–1995. London and New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 189.ISBN9780521645195. Retrieved31 May 2009.[permanent dead link]While the culture is dominated by the Francophonie, a complex multilingualism is present in Kinshasa. Many in the francophonie of the 1980s labelled Zaïre as the second-largest francophone country, and Kinshasa as the second-largest francophone city. Yet Zaïre seemed unlikely to escape a complex multilingualism. Lingala was the language of music, of presidential addresses, of daily life in government and in Kinshasa. But if Lingala was the spoken language of Kinshasa, it made little progress as a written language. French was the written language of the city, as seen in street signs, posters, newspapers and in government documents. French dominated plays and television as well as the press; French was the language of the national anthem and even for the doctrine of authenticity. Zairian researchers found French to be used in vertical relationships among people of uneven rank; people of equal rank, no matter how high, tended to speak Zairian languages among themselves. Given these limits, French might have lost its place to another of the leading languages of Zaïre – Lingala, Tshiluba, orSwahili – except that teaching of these languages also suffered from limitations on its growth.
^abcdefghijklmnopqrsKinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015)."Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa"(PDF) (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 43–46.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved4 August 2023.
^abcdefghijKinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015)."Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa"(PDF) (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 48–50.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved4 August 2023.
^abcdefghijKinyamba, S. Shomba; Nsenda, F. Mukoka; Nonga, D. Olela; Kaminar, T.M.; Mbalanda, W. . (2015)."Monographie de la ville de Kinshasa"(PDF) (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Institut Congolais de Recherche en Développement et Etudes Stratégiques (ICREDES). pp. 50–52.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved4 August 2023.
^Emizet Francois Kisangani, Scott F. Bobb, "China, People's Republic of, Relations with";Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2010; pp.74Archived 1 April 2023 at theWayback Machine–75.
^Kouadio, Jean-Francois (26 October 2017).La Republique des singes [The Republic of Monkeys] (in French). Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa: Botsotso Publishing. p. 110.ISBN978-1-990922-62-6.
^Bayo, Herman Bangi (2 July 2020)."Mont Ngaliema: musée en plein air…" [Mount Ngaliema: open-air museum…].E-journal.info (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo: E-Journal Kinshasa. Retrieved5 February 2026.
^Tamagni, Daniele; Goodwin, Paul (2009).Gentlemen of Bacongo. Contributors: Paul Goodwin, Paul Smith. London, England: Trolley.ISBN9781904563839.Archived from the original on 8 September 2023. Retrieved10 July 2023.
^abO. Oko Elechi and Angela R. Morris, "Congo, Democratic Republic of the (Congo-Kinshasa)"; in Mahesh K. Nalla & Graeme R. Newman (eds.),Crime and Punishment around the World, Volume 1: Africa and the Middle East; Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2010; pp.53–56.
^[3] BBC News - 'Hell behind bars' - life in DR Congo's most notorious jail
^Camille Dugrand, "Subvertir l'ordre? Les ambivalences de l'expression politique des Shégués de Kinshasa";Revue Tiers Monde 4(228), 2016;doi:10.3917/rtm.228.0045. "Figures incontournables de l'urbanité kinoise, les Shégués ont fait l'objet de plusieurs travaux scientifiques (Biaya, 1997, 2000; De Boeck, 2000, 2005; Geenen, 2009)."
^"Brussels".efus.eu. European Forum for Urban Security. 21 January 2012.Archived from the original on 8 August 2021. Retrieved15 February 2022.
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