Kingdom of Singapura Kerajaan Singapura
1299–1396/1398
Kingdom of Singapore, with ruins of an old wall still visible in 1825 and marked on this map.
Capital	Singapura[1]
Common languages	Old Malay
Religion	Hinduism Buddhism Islam (later period)
Government	Absolute monarchy
Raja
• 1299–1347	Sang Nila Utama (Sri Tri Buana)
• 1347–1362	Sri Wikrama Wira
• 1362–1375	Sri Rana Wikrama
• 1375–1389	Sri Maharaja
• 1389–1398	Parameswara (Iskandar Shah)
History
• Founding of Temasek by Sang Nila Utama	1299
• Siege by Siamese forces	1330
• Siege by Majapahit underHayam Wuruk	1350
• Majapahit invasion and escape ofParameswara to theMalay Peninsula	1396/1398
Preceded by Succeeded by Melayu Kingdom Temasek Malacca Sultanate Majapahit
Today part of	Singapore

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History ofSingapore
Early history (pre-1819) Srivijaya 650–1377 Temasek,Long Ya Men, Ban Zu c.14th century Kingdom of Singapura 1299–1398 Majapahit 1398–1400 Malacca Sultanate 1400–1528 Johor Sultanate 1528–1819
British colonial era (1819–1942) Founding 1819–1826 Straits Settlements 1826–1867 Crown colony 1867–1942
Japanese Occupation (1942–1945) Fall of Singapore 1942 Sook Ching 1942 Double Tenth incident 1943
Post-war period (1945–1962) First Legislative Council 1948–1951 Maria Hertogh riots 1950 Second Legislative Council 1951–1955 Anti-National Service Riots 1954
Internal self-government (1955–1963) Hock Lee bus riots 1955 Singapore Glass Factory strikes 1960 Pulau Senang prison riots 1963
Merger with Malaysia (1963–1965) Singaporean referendum 1962 Operation Coldstore 1963 Race riots in Singapore 1964 MacDonald House bombing 1965
Republic of Singapore (1965–present) ASEAN Declaration (ASEAN) 1967 1969 race riots of Singapore 1969 Laju incident 1974 Operation Spectrum 1987 Asian financial crisis 1997 Embassies attack plot 2001 H1N1 pandemic 2009–2010 Bus drivers' strike 2012 Little India riot 2013 2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summit 2018 COVID-19 pandemic 2020–2022
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History ofMalaysia
Prehistoric period Paleolithic  Lenggong Valley c. 2,000,0000 BCE  Mansuli Valley 235,000 BCE Mesolithic  Niah cultures 65,000–40,000 BCE Neolithic  Bewah man/woman 16,000 BCE  Perak man/woman 11,000–200 BCE  Neolithic Klang 500 – 200 BCE
Early kingdoms Ancient Kedah <100 BCE Chi Tu 100 BCE–642 CE Langkasuka 100 BCE–1474 CE Gangga Negara c. 100 CE–1025 Pan Pan 424–775 Old Kedah 170–1135 Old Pahang 449–1454 Srivijaya 700s–1025 Majapahit 1300s
Rise of Muslim states Kedah Sultanate 1136–present Samudera Pasai Sultanate 1267–1521 Brunei Sultanate 1368–present Malacca Sultanate 1402–1511 Sulu Sultanate 1450–1899 Pahang Sultanate 1470–1623 Aceh Sultanate 1496–1903 Pattani Sultanate 1516– 1902 Johor Sultanate 1528–present Sarawak Sultanate 1599–1641 Selangor Sultanate 1766–present Besut Kingdom 1780–1899 Setul Kingdom 1808–1916 Reman Kingdom 1810–1902 Kubang Pasu Kingdom 1839–1864
Colonial period Portuguese Malacca 1511–1641 Dutch–Portuguese War 1601–1661 Dutch Malacca 1641–1824 Pahang Kingdom 1770–1881 Straits Settlements 1786–1946 Siamese invasion of Kedah 1821–1826 Anglo-Dutch Treaty 1824 Burney Treaty 1826 Naning War 1831–1832 Kingdom of Sarawak 1841–1946 Separation of Perlis from Kedah 1843 Crown Colony of Labuan 1848–1946 Pahang Civil War 1857–1863 Larut Wars 1861–1874 Klang War 1867–1874 Pangkor Treaty 1874 Perak War 1875–1876 British Malaya /Borneo 1874–1946 Jementah Civil War 1879 North Borneo 1882–1946 Pahang Uprising 1891–1895 Mat Salleh Rebellion 1894–1905 Federated Malay States 1895–1946 Anglo-Siamese Treaty 1909 Unfederated Malay States 1909–1946 Battle of Penang 1914 Kelantan rebellion 1915
World War II Japanese occupation of Malaya / Borneo 1941–1945 Malayan campaign 1941–1942 Bornean Campaign 1941–1942 Battle of Muar 1942 Parit Sulong Massacre 1942 Battle of Singapore 1942 Sook Ching 1942 Syburi 1942 Sandakan Death Marches 1942–1945 Si Rat Malai 1943–1945 Jesselton revolt 1943–1944
Formative period BMA of Malaya/Borneo 1945–1946 Crown Colony of N. Borneo/Sarawak 1946–1963 Anti-cession movement 1946–1963 Malayan Union 1946–1948 Federation of Malaya 1948–1963 Malayan Emergency 1948–1960 Baling Talks 1955
Independence period Malayan Independence 1957 Singapore self-governance 1959 ISA 1960 1960–2012 Sarawak Insurgency 1962–1990 North Borneo self-governance 1963 Konfrontasi 1963–1966 Sarawak self-governance 1963 Formation of Malaysia 1963 Singapore in Malaysia 1963–1965 ASEAN Declaration 1967 Second communist insurgency 1968–1989
Modern period 1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis 1965–1966 13 May incident 1969 National Operations Council 1969–1971 Declaration of Rukun Negara 1970 New Economic Policy 1971–1990 Federal Territory of KL 1974 1977 Kelantan Emergency 1977 Pedra Branca dispute 1979–2008 South China Sea dispute(Spratly) 1980–present Dawn Raid 1981 Federal Territory of Labuan 1984 Memali incident 1985 Sabah Emergency 1986 Ming Court Affair 1987 Operation Lalang 1987 Constitutional crisis 1987–1988 Peace Agreement of Hat Yai 1989 Royal Immunity Amendments 1993 Asian financial crisis 1997–1998 Reformasi Movement 1998–2022 Federal Territory of Putrajaya 2001 2008 Malaysian Opposition Wave 2008 2009 Perak constitutional crisis 2009 H1N1 flu pandemic 2009–2010 Lahad Datu standoff 2013 Sedition Dragnet 2014 1MDB scandal 2015–present Pakatan Harapan takeover 2018 COVID-19 pandemic 2020–2022 Political crisis 2020–2022 Bornean Amendment 2021–2023 Green Wave 2022–present 2023 Sabah political crisis 2023
Incidents Brunei revolt 1962–1966 North Borneo dispute (Philippine militant attacks) 1962–present Singapore race riots 1964 Brunei's Limbang claim 1967–2009 Penang Hartal riot 1967 Ligitan and Sipadan dispute 1969–2002 Kuala Lumpur flash floods 1971 Malaysian haze crisis 1972–present AIA building hostage crisis 1975 National Monument bombing 1975 Campbell Shopping Complex fire 1976 Sabah Air GAF Nomad crash 1976 Japan Airlines Flight 715 incident 1977 MH653 incident 1977 1982 Bukit Merah radioactive pollution 1982 1985 Lahad Datu ambush 1985 Memali Incident 1985 Penang terminal bridge collapse 1988 Taufiqiah Al-Khairiah madrasa fire 1989 Kuala Lumpur–Karak Highway crash 1990 Bright Sparklers disaster 1991 Highland Towers collapse 1993 Genting landslide 1995 MH2133 incident 1995 Pos Dipang mudflow 1996 Tropical Storm Greg 1996 Nipah virus outbreak 1998–1999 2000 Sipadan kidnappings 2000 Al-Ma'unah incident 2000 Sauk Siege 2000 2001 Kampung Medan riots 2001 2002 Taman Hillview landslide 2002 Indian Ocean tsunami 2004 2006–2007 Southeast Asian floods 2006–2007 Bukit Gantang bus crash 2007 Bukit Antarabangsa landslide 2008 Attacks against places of worship 2010 2010 Cameron Highlands bus crash 2010 Hulu Langat landslide 2011 2013 Genting Highlands bus crash 2013 MH370 incident 2014 MH17 incident 2014 2014–15 Malaysia floods 2014–2015 Sabah earthquake 2015 2015 Plaza Low Yat riot 2015 Movida Bar grenade attack 2016 Kim Jong-nam's Assassination 2017 Darul Quran madrasa fire 2017 2018 Subang Temple riot 2018 2019 Kim Kim River toxic pollution 2019 2020-21 Malaysia floods 2021 LRT train collision 2021 2021-22 Malaysia floods 2021–2022 2022 Batang Kali landslide 2022 2023 Elmina plane crash 2023 2024 Lumut helicopters crash 2024 2024 Ulu Tiram police station attack 2024 2025 Putra Heights pipeline fire 2025 2025 Gerik bus crash 2025
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TheKingdom of Singapura (Malay:Kerajaan Singapura) was aMalay polity believed to have been founded as aHindu–Buddhist kingdom during theearly history of Singapore on the island ofTemasek, lasting from 1299 until its decline and fall between 1396 and 1398.^[2] Conventional view marksc. 1299 as the founding year of the kingdom bySang Nila Utama (also known as "Sri Tri Buana"), whose father isSang Sapurba, a semi-divine figure who according to legend is the ancestor of several Malay monarchs in the Malay world.

The historicity of this kingdom based on the account given in theMalay Annals is uncertain and many historians only consider its last ruler, theMuslim convertParameswara (or Sri Iskandar Shah), to be a historically attested figure in his role as the first ruler of theMalacca Sultanate.^[3] Archaeological evidence fromFort Canning Hill and the nearby banks of theSingapore River has nevertheless demonstrated the existence of a thriving settlement and a trade port in the 14th century, corroborating the eyewitness testimony ofYuan dynasty sojournerWang Dayuan concerning the settlements ofLong Ya Men andBan Zu uponTemasek.^[4]

The settlement developed in the 13th or 14th century and transformed from a small trading outpost into a bustling center of international commerce, facilitating trade networks that linked theMalay Archipelago,India and theYuan dynasty. It was however claimed by two regional powers at that time, theAyuthaya from the north and theMajapahit from the south. As a result, the kingdom's fortified capital was attacked by at least two major foreign invasions before it was finally sacked by Majapahit in 1398 according to theMalay Annals or by the Siamese according toPortuguese sources.^[5][6][7] The last king, Parameswara, fled to the west coast of theMalay Peninsula to establish theMalacca Sultanate in 1400.

The nameSingapura is derived fromSanskrit meaning "Lion City".^[8]Singa comes from the Sanskrit wordsiṃha, which means "lion", andpūra means "city" in Sanskrit.^[9] According to theMalay Annals,Sang Nila Utama and his men were exploring Tanjong Bemban while inBintan when he spotted an island with white sandy beach from a high point. On learning that the island was calledTemasek, they set sail for the island, but encountered a severe storm on the way. After they managed to land safely on the island, they went to hunt for wild animals. He suddenly saw a strange animal with a red body, black head and a white neck breast. It was a fine-looking animal and moved with great speed as it disappeared into the jungle. He asked his chief minister, Demang Lebar Daun, what animal it was, and was told that it probably was anAsiatic lion. He then decided to stay inTemasek, named the city he founded Singapura or "Lion City".^[10][11]

Some scholars believe that Sang Nila Utama and the story of its founding to be fictional, and a number of alternative suggestions for the origin of the name of Singapore have been given. For example, it has been proposed that the name Singapura was adopted byParameswara as an indication that he was re-establishing inTemasek the lion throne that he had originally set up inPalembang as a challenge to the JavaneseMajapahit Empire.^[12] In this version of events, Parameswara had assassinated the local ruler ofTemasek and usurped the throne, and changed the name ofTemasek to strengthen the legitimacy of his claim over the island.^[8] Others linked the name to the Javanese kingdom ofSinghasari as well as a Majapahit Buddhist sect whose adherents were referred to as lions. Although it is believed that the nameSingapura replacedTemasek some time in the 14th century, the origin of the name cannot be determined with certainty.^[12]

The only comprehensive account of Singapore's history in this era is theMalay Annals. These were written and compiled during the height of theMalacca Sultanate and re-compiled in 1612 by the court of theJohor Sultanate. It is the basis for accounts of its founding, the succession of rulers and its decline. As no specific date is given in theMalay Annals, the chronology of the history of the Kingdom of Singapura as set out in theMalay Annals is calculated from the date of death of Parameswara given in theMing Veritable Records.^[1] While various aspects of the accounts of the Malacca and Johor sultanates given in theMalay Annals are relatively accurate, the same can not be said for the Kingdom of Singapura for which there is little corroborating evidence for large part of its accounts. Historians are therefore generally in doubt over the historicity of the kingdom as described in the semi-historicalMalay Annals,^[3][13] nevertheless some consider Singapura to be a significant polity that existed between the decline ofSrivijaya and the rise of Malacca.^[14][15] Some also argued that the author of theMalay Annals, whose purpose is to legitimise the claim of descent from the Palembang ruling house, invented the five kings of Singapura to gloss over an inglorious period of its history.^[12] However, Iskandar Shah/Parameswara, the last ruler of Singapura and founder of the Malacca Sultanate, is a figure that could be considered factual.^[12]

Accounts of Singapura in its final years are also briefly given in Portuguese sources, such as those byTomé Pires, Brás de Albuquerque (who published letters by his fatherAfonso de Albuquerque),Godinho de Erédia, andJoão de Barros.^[16] For example, theSuma Oriental, written shortly after thePortuguese conquest of Malacca, briefly mentions Singapura in relation to the foundation of Malacca. Both theSuma Oriental and theMalay Annals contain similar stories about a fleeing Palembang prince who arrived and lay claim to Singapura, and about the last king of Singapura who fled to the west coast of theMalay Peninsula to found Malacca. However, both accounts differ markedly as theSuma Oriental identifies the fleeing prince and the last king of Singapura as Parameswara. In contrast, theMalay Annals identifies the fleeing prince and the last king as two different people separated by five generations,Sang Nila Utama andIskandar Shah respectively. TheSuma Oriental noted further that the fleeing Palembang prince assassinated the local ruler "Temagi" or "Sang Aji" and usurped the throne of Singapura sometimes around the 1390s, and Parameswara then ruled Singapura for five years with the help of theÇelates orOrang Laut.^[17]

Portuguese sources named Iskandar Shah as Parameswara's son, ChineseMing dynasty sources similar named Iskandar Shah as the second ruler of Malacca. Many modern scholars believe Parameswara to be the same person as Iskandar Shah, and some scholars argued that they were mistaken as two different people due to Parameswara changing his name to Iskandar Shah after he converted to Islam.^[18][19] There are however other opinions, and many now acceptMegat Iskandar Shah as the son of Parameswara.^[20]

The only known first-hand account of 14th-century Singapore is found in the descriptions of a place calledDanmaxi (commonly identified withTemasek inChinese transliteration) recorded byWang Dayuan in theDaoyi Zhilüe, a chronicle of his travels. It indicates thatTemasek was ruled by a local chief during Wang's visit around 1330,^[21] however the word used (酋長, "tribal chief") by Wang indicates that the ruler may not have been independent, rather he was a vassal of another more powerful state.^[22] Wang also mentioned that the Siamese attacked the fortified city ofTemasek with around 70 ships a few years before he visited, butTemasek successfully resisted the attack which lasted a month.^[17] Other settlements on the island recorded by Wang areLong Ya Men (identified withKeppel Harbour) andBan Zu (possibly aChinese transliteration of the MalayPancur, or a sacred spring onFort Canning Hill); the exact relationship between these settlements is unknown.^{[citation needed]}

Although the existence of the kingdom as described in theMalay Annals is debatable, archaeological excavations onFort Canning and its vicinity along the banks of theSingapore River since 1984 byJohn Miksic have confirmed the presence of a thriving settlement and a trade port there during the 14th century.^[23] Remnants of a wall of significant size (described byJohn Crawfurd as around five metres wide and three metres high) and unique to the region were found inland along present dayStamford Road. Excavations also found evidence of structures built on what is nowFort Canning Hill, along with evidence of fruit orchards and terraces. Local lore when the British arrived in the early 1800s associated it with the royalty of ancient Singapura where its last ruler was buried, and the hill was known to them as the Forbidden Hill (Bukit Larangan), as it was the site of spirits. In 1928, a cache of gold ornaments was found by workers excavating the hill for theFort Canning Reservoir, including a pair of near-identical flexible armlets, a finger ring inscribed with a bird-like motif, three pairs of circular rings (perhaps earrings), an elliptical ornament, and a jewelled clasp with a disc-and-conch motif.^[24] Most of these were lost during theJapanese occupation of Singapore in the Second World War, and only one of the armbands and two of the circular rings remain.^[25][26] Numerous fragments of ceramics, porcelain, and other objects have been found at three different locations around the Singapore River and Fort Canning Hill, with those from Fort Canning Hill of a higher quality than the others, offering further evidence that it was the residence of the elites, all of which supports the notion that Singapore was a political and commercial center in the 14th century.^[4]

The primary source concerning the history of the rulers of Singapura are theMalay Annals, and the rest of this section is mainly built upon reconstructions from its text, although corroborating evidence is scarce and its polemic nature suggests against literal interpretations of this chronicle.^[28] Other sources include the Yuan dynasty merchantWang Dayuan's compendium known as theDaoyi Zhilüe,Trần dynasty annals,Portuguese apothecaryTomé Pires'Suma Oriental and scattered references in theMajapahitNagarakretagama and the 16th-century Javanase court poem,Pararaton; as well as Ming records such as theYuanshi.^[29][30]

According to theMalay Annals, a fleeing Palembang prince namedSang Nila Utama, who claimed to be a descendant ofAlexander the Great (via his Islamic interpretation asIskandar Zulkarnain), took refuge onBintan Island for several years before he set sail and landed onTemasek in 1299.^[31] In this era,Temasek was a small trading outpost and primarily inhabited byOrang Laut seafarers. Historically, these Orang Laut were very loyal to the Malay kings, patrolling adjacent seas and repelling other petty pirates, directing traders to their Malay overlords' ports and maintaining those ports' dominance in the area.^[32] These Orang Laut eventually declared himRaja ("king"), and Sang Nila Utama renamedTemasek asSingapura and founded his capital around the mouth of theSingapore River.^[33]

The area was suitable for a new settlement due to the nearby presence of a spring and a hill. The fresh water from a spring on the hill's slope served both as a bathing place for royalty and, at the base of a hill, a source of fresh water for the populace. The hill (modern-dayFort Canning Hill) itself representedMount Meru, the seat of the gods in Hindu-Buddhist mythology, which was associated with kingship and divinity in ancient Southeast Asian culture. Building a palace on a hill would have helped Sang Nila Utama to assert his role as a semi-divine ruler.^[34]

The king styled himself as Sri Tri Buana, or "The Lord of Three Worlds", indicating authority over the universe.^[35] Within a few decades, the small settlement grew into a thriving cosmopolitan city serving as a port of call for richly laden trade ships traveling through theMalacca Straits region. TheMalay Annals mention that supplies of workers, horses and elephants were sent from Bintan by the king's adoptive mother,^{[citation needed]} Permaisuri Iskandar Syah, the Queen of theKingdom of Bentan [id] onBintan Island.^[36]

It was during this period that contacts with Yuan dynasty China were established. It was recorded that in 1320,Yuan China sent envoys toLong Ya Men (thought by some to stretch from modern-dayKeppel Harbour south to the northwestern side ofSentosa and west to what is today theLabrador Nature Reserve) "to obtain tame elephants", and the natives ofLong Ya Men returned with tributes and a trade mission to China in 1325.^[37]

Long Ya Men was part ofTemasek (the Kingdom of Singapura) according to Chinese travelerWang Dayuan who visitedTemasek in the 1330s and wrote an account of his travel in theDaoyi Zhilüe. He describesTemasek as comprising two settlements – "Ban Zu" (after the Malay word "pancur" or fresh-water spring), a peaceful trading port city under the rule of the king. The second settlement he describes as an area surrounding the "Long-ya-men", which was occupied by ferocious pirates who launched frequent attacks on passing merchant ships. He also notes that Chinese traders lived there, "side by side with the natives". He also mentions some of the trade goods bartered in Singapura: red gold, cotton prints, blue satin,lakawood and fine hornbill casques.^[38][39]

TheSiamese attempted to subjugate the island kingdom in this period. According to Wang's account, possibly a few years before he visitedTemasek in the 1330s, a Siamese fleet consisting of 70 junks descended upon the island kingdom and launched an attack. The moated and heavily fortified city managed to withstand the siege of the Siamese for a month until the Siamese fleet withdrew with the arrival of aYuan dynasty imperial envoy.^[40][6][17]

In 1347, Sri Teri Buana was succeeded bySri Wikrama Wira. His reign was marked by the first attempt bySiam to subdue Singapura. As recorded by Wang Dayuan in 1349, a Siamese fleet of 70 jongs arrived at Singapura. The heavily fortified city withstood a siege until the fleet fled with the arrival of Chinese ships.^[41]

The increasingly powerful Javanese kingdom of Majapahit, the successor ofSinghasari, began eyeing the growing influence of the tiny island kingdom. Under the leadership of its ambitious warlord,Gajah Mada, Majapahit started to embark on overseas expansions against all kingdoms of theMalay Archipelago. In 1350,Hayam Wuruk ascended to the throne of Majapahit. The new king sent an envoy to Singapura demanding the submission of the kingdom. Wikrama Wira refused to do so and even sent a symbolic message threatening to shave the Majapahit king's head should he proceed to Singapura.^[42]

The furious Majapahit king ordered an invasion with a fleet of 100 main warships (jong) and many smaller vessels under the command of Damang Wiraja.^[42][43] The fleet passed through the island of Bintan, from where the news spread to Singapura. The defenders immediately assembled 400 warboats to face the invasion. Both sides clashed on the coast of Singapura in a battle that took place over three days and three nights. Many were killed on both sides and in the evening of the third day, the Javanese were driven back to their ships.^[44][45][46]

Sri Wikrama Wira died in 1362 and succeeded by his son,Sri Rana Wikrama. Despite the failure in the previous campaign, the Javanese chronicleNagarakretagama lists Singapura as a subject of Majapahit in 1365. During his reign, Sri Rana Wikrama established a diplomatic ties with a SumatranPeureulak Sultanate.^[5] It was during the reign of Sri Rana Wikrama that, the legendaryBadang, was said to have demonstrated his feat of strength in Rana Wikrama's court, including casting theSingapore Stone to its location at the mouth of theSingapore River, where it stood until it was demolished by theBritish East India Company.^[47]

In 1375, Rana Wikrama was succeeded by his sonSri Maharaja. According to theMalay Annals, the reign of Sri Maharaja was marked with the event oftodak (garfish) ravaging the coast of Singapura. A young boy,Hang Nadim, thought of an ingenious solution to fend off thetodak by planting banana plants along the shoreline, where they would get stuck whilst leaping out of the water. The king was initially grateful, but felt increasingly envious of the attention the boy's intelligence was garnering, and ordered to have the boy executed.^[48]

In 1387, Paduka Sri Maharaja was succeeded by Iskandar Shah, commonly identified as the kingParameswara mentioned in theSuma Oriental ofTomé Pires. Based on his Persian name and title, it is believed that Iskandar Shah was the first king of Singapura to embrace Islam. Portuguese accounts by Pires however, suggested that the Iskandar Shah mentioned in his text (and said to be Parameswara's son) only converted when he was 72 as the ruler of Malacca.^[18]

As mentioned in theMalay Annals, the story of the fall of Singapura and the flight of its last king begins with Iskandar Shah's accusing one of hisconcubines of adultery. As punishment, the king had her stripped naked in public. In revenge, the concubine's father, Sang Rajuna Tapa who was also an official in Iskandar Shah's court, secretly sent a message to the king of Majapahit, pledging his support should the king choose to invade Singapura. In 1398, Majapahit dispatched a fleet of 300 jong and hundreds of smaller vessels (ofkelulus,pelang, andjongkong), carrying no fewer than 200,000 men.^[49][50][51]

The Javanese soldiers engaged with the defenders in a battle outside the fortress, before forcing them to retreat behind the walls. The invasion force laid siege to the city and repeatedly tried to attack the fortress. However the fortress proved to be impregnable.^[5][6][52] After about a month passed, the food in the fortress began to run low and the defenders were on the verge of starvation. Sang Rajuna Tapa was then asked to distribute whatever grain left to the people from the royal store. Seeing this opportunity for revenge, the minister lied to the King, saying the stores were empty. The grain was not distributed and the people eventually starved. The final assault came when the gates were finally opened under the order of the minister. Knowing that defeat was imminent, Iskandar Shah and his followers fled the island. The Majapahit soldiers rushed into the fortress and a terrible massacre ensued.^[53] According to theMalay Annals, "blood flowed like a river" and the red stains on the laterite soil of Singapore are said to be blood from that massacre.^[54][55]

Portuguese sources give a significantly different account of the life of last ruler of Singapura. These accounts named the last ruler of Singapura and founder of Malacca as Parameswara, a name also found in Ming annals. It is generally believed that the Iskandar Shah of theMalay Annals is the same person as Parameswara.^[12] However, Portuguese accounts and Ming sources indicate that Iskandar Shah was the son of Parameswara who became the second ruler of Malacca,^[16] and some therefore argued thatMegat Iskandar Shah was the son of Parameswara.^[20] According to the Portuguese accounts, Parameswara was a prince fromPalembang who attempted to challenge Javanese rule over Palembang sometime after 1360. The Javanese then attacked and drove Parameswara out of Palembang. Parameswara escaped to Singapura, and was welcomed by its ruler of with the title Sang Aji named Sangesinga. Parameswara assassinated the local ruler after 8 days, then ruled Singapura for five years with the help of theÇelates orOrang Laut.^[17] He was however driven out by the Thais, possibly as a punishment for killing the Sang Aji whose wife may have been from the Kingdom ofPatani.^[56]

The Sejarah Melayu does not actually give any dates for Singapura. The Raffles 18 manuscript (MS. 18) is the sole Sejarah Melayu manuscript to give any form of indication through its statement of the durations of reigns of every king from Sang Nila Utama to Sultan Mahmud Shah (r.1488–1511, 1513–1528) of Melaka, who reportedly abdicated in favour of his son, Sultan Ahmad, shortly before the city fell to the Portuguese conquest of 1511. Working backwards from this historical date using the total length of rule of all the kings (350 years on the Islamic calendar adopted by the Melaka kingdom and its successor Johor, or about 339 years on the Gregorian calendar), one finds that Sang Nila Utama was installed as ruler of Palembang circa 1172. Raffles suggested the date of 1160 for Singapura's founding, which was actually taken from Francois Valentijn, who determined in 1724 that this was when Sri Tri Buana (a title associated with Sang Nila Utama) was crowned in Palembang. Valentijn had used a list of kings available to him that disclosed the stated reign durations of a line of Malay rulers of Singapura, Melaka, and Johor, that ended with Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah IV (r.1699–1720). However, Valentijn wrongly used solar years as the unit of his calculation–the Malays followed the Islamic calendar–but his compatriot Petrus van der Vorm realised this and arrived, from the same information, at the year 1177. In any case, 1299 or 1300 is not the answer.^[57]

The 1299 was not a date from Sejarah Melayu but a proposition made by William Linehan in 1947. The colonial historian had assumed Parameswara to be Iskandar Shah, the fifth and last king of Singapura described in Sejarah Melayu. Taking a Chinese announcement of Parameswara’s death in 1414, and considering it to have happened the year before (i.e. 1413), Linehan worked backwards using the combined duration of reigns of the five Singapura kings in the Raffles 18 (114 years) to arrive that Sang Nila Utama was made king in 1299.^[58]

Linehan's theory was long discredited by Wang Gungwu's verification that Parameswara and Iskandar Shah were not the same persons, but father and son, as the Ming dynasty records stated. The Chinese reported Iskandar Shah's death in 1424.^[59]

TheMalay Annals provide a well-defined hierarchical structure of Singapura, which was later partly adopted by its successor, Malacca. The highest hierarchical position was theRaja (king) as an absolute monarch. Next to theRaja were theOrang Besar Berempat (four senior nobles) headed by aBendahara (equivalent to a Grand Vizier) as the highest-ranking officer and the advisor to the King. He was then assisted by three other senior nobles based on the order of precedence namely;Perdana Menteri (prime minister),Penghulu Bendahari (chief of treasurer) andHulubalang Besar (grand commander).^{[citation needed]}

ThePerdana Menteri assisted theBendahara in administering the internal affairs of the kingdom and usually sat opposite to theBendahara in the royal court, while thePenghulu Bendahari was responsible for the financial affairs of the kingdom.^{[citation needed]}

TheHulubalang Besar acted as a chief of staff of the army and commanded several otherHulubalangs (commanders), who in turn led smaller military units. TheOrang Besar Berempat were assisted by other lower ranking officials titledOrang Besar Caterias,Sida Bentaras andOrang Kayas.^[60]

Singapura's rise as a trade-post was concurrent with the era known asPax Mongolica, where theMongol Empire's influence over both the overland and maritimeSilk Road allowed a new global trading system to develop. Previously, shipping occurred on long-distance routes from theFar East toIndia or even further west to theArabian Peninsula, which was relatively costly, risky and time-consuming. However, the new trading system involved the division of the maritime Silk Road into three segments: anIndian Ocean sector linking theGulf of Aden and theStrait of Hormuz-based Arab traders to India, aBay of Bengal sector linking the Indian ports with theStrait of Malacca and its associated ports including Singapura and theSouth China Sea sector linkingSoutheast Asia withSouthern China.^[61]

Singapura achieved its significance due to its role as aport. It seems to fit – at least in part – the definition of a port of trade in which trade is less a function of the economy and more a function of government policy; thus trading would have been highly structured and institutionalized, with government agents playing key roles in port activities. Portuguese traders' account in particular, suggest that Singapura operated in such a manner. Reports from merchants of different countries also indicate that Singapura was a point of exchange, rather than a source for goods. Local products were limited in type and mainly consisted oflakawood,tin,hornbill casques (anivory-like part of the hornbill bird, which was valued for carved ornaments), some wooden items and cotton. Other commonly traded products included a variety offabrics (cotton andsatins),iron rods, iron pots, andporcelains. Chinese traders also reported that there were very few agricultural products due to poor soil. Although these goods were also available from other Southeast Asian ports, those from Singapura were unique in terms of their quality. Singapura also acted as a gateway into the regional and international economic system for its immediate region.South Johor and theRiau Archipelago supplied products to Singapura for export elsewhere, while Singapura was the main source of foreign products to the region. Archaeological artefacts such asceramics andglassware found in the Riau Archipelago are evidence of this. In addition, cotton wastransshipped from Java or India through Singapura.^[62]

The increase in activities by Chinese traders seems especially significant for Singapura and its trade. Wang Dayuan indicated that, by this time, there was a Chinese settlement in Singapura living peaceably with the indigenous population.^[63]

According to theMalay Annals, after sacking Singapura, the Majapahit army abandoned the city and returned to Java. The city would have been ruined and greatly depopulated. The rivalry between the courts of the Javanese and Malay in the region was renewed a few years later when the last king Iskandar Shah, founded his new stronghold on the mouth ofBertam River on the west coast of theMalay Peninsula. Within decades, the new city grew rapidly to become the capital ofMalacca Sultanate and emerged as the primary base in continuing the historic struggles of Singapura against their Java-based rivals. The account by João de Barros suggests that Singapura did not end suddenly after the attack by the Siamese, rather Singapore declined gradually when Parameswara's son Iskandar Shah pushed for trade to move to Malacca instead of Singapura.^[65]

As a major entrepot, Malacca attracted Muslim traders from various part of the world and became a centre of Islam, spreading the religion throughoutMaritime Southeast Asia. The expansion of Islam into interior Java in the 15th century led to the gradual decline of Hindu-Majapahit before it finally succumbed to the emerging local Muslim forces in the early 16th century. The period spanning from Malaccan era right until the age ofEuropean colonisation, saw the domination of Malay-Muslim sultanates in trade and politics that eventually contributed to theMalayisation of the region.^[66]

By the mid-15th century, Majapahit found itself unable to control the rising power of Malacca as it began to gain effective control of theStrait of Malacca and expand its influence to Sumatra. Singapura was also absorbed into its realm and once served as thefiefdom of a MelaccanLaksamana.^[67] TheJohor Sultanate emerged as the dominant power around the Straits of Singapore until it was assimilated into the sphere of influence of theDutch East India Company; the island of Singapore would not regain autonomy from Johor until SirStamford Raffles claimed it and its port for theBritish East India Company in 1819, deliberately invoking its history as related in theMalay Annals,^[68] whose translation by Dr.John Leyden he posthumously published in 1821.^[69] The dispute concerning Singapore's legal status, along with other matters arising from British seizure of Dutch colonial possessions during theNapoleonic Wars, was settled by theAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, permanently dividing archipelagic and mainland Southeast Asia.

The independentRepublic of Singapore, following the confirmation of its past as the Kingdom of Singapura through its archaeology, has promoted Singapura's history as a regional emporium, showcasing it in the Maritime Experiential Museum onSentosa^[70] and incorporating the chronicle of Sang Nila Utama into its primary school social sciences curriculum.^[71] As part of events commemorating the bicentennial of Raffles' claim to Singapore, a statue of Sang Nila Utama has been erected (along with those of other Singaporean pioneers contemporary with Raffles) at theRaffles' Landing Site along theSingapore River, which the Kingdom of Singapura was built upon.^[72]

1°18′N103°48′E / 1.3°N 103.8°E /1.3; 103.8

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