Kingdom of Pergamon | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| approx. 282 BC–129 BC | |||||||||||
 Pergamon in 188 BC | |||||||||||
| Capital | Pergamon (modern-dayBergama,İzmir,Turkey) | ||||||||||
| Common languages | Greek Lycian,Carian,Lydian | ||||||||||
| Religion | Greek Polytheism,Hellenistic Religion | ||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||
| Basileus | |||||||||||
• 282–263 BC | Philetaerus | ||||||||||
• 263–241 BC | Eumenes I | ||||||||||
• 241–197 BC | Attalus I | ||||||||||
• 197–159 BC | Eumenes II | ||||||||||
• 160–138 BC | Attalus II | ||||||||||
• 138–133 BC | Attalus III | ||||||||||
• 133–129 BC | Eumenes III | ||||||||||
| Historical era | Hellenistic period | ||||||||||
• Philetaerus takes control of the city ofPergamon | approx. 282 BC | ||||||||||
• Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to theRoman Republic | 133 BC | ||||||||||
• Incorporated intoRoman province of Asia after the defeat ofEumenes III Aristonicus | 129 BC | ||||||||||
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TheKingdom of Pergamon,Pergamene Kingdom, orAttalid kingdom was aGreek state during theHellenistic period that ruled much of the Western part ofAsia Minor (nowTurkey) from its capital city ofPergamon. It was ruled by theAttalid dynasty (/ˈætəlɪd/;Greek:Δυναστεία των Ατταλιδών,romanized: Dynasteía ton Attalidón).
The kingdom was arump state that was created from the territory ruled byLysimachus, a general ofAlexander the Great.Philetaerus, one of Lysimachus' lieutenants, rebelled and took the city of Pergamon and its environs with him; Lysimachus died soon after in 281 BC. The new kingdom was initially in a vassal-like relationship of nominal fealty to theSeleucid Empire, but exercised considerable autonomy and soon became entirely independent. It was a monarchy ruled by Philetaerus's extended family and their descendants. It lasted around 150 years before being eventually absorbed by theRoman Republic during the period from 133–129 BC.
Philetaerus rose from humble origins to become a lieutenant ofLysimachus, one ofAlexander the Great's generals (diadochi), who ruled a large state centered aroundByzantium.[1] Philetaerus was trusted to manage the fortress of Pergamon and guard much of Lysimachus's treasury, and had 9,000talents under his purview. At some point prior to 281 BC, Philetaerus deserted Lysimachus and rebelled, allegedly over fears of Arsinoe, Lysimachus's wife, who was accused of arranging the death ofAgathocles, Lysimachus's son. In 281 BC,Seleucus I Nicator, another of Alexander's generals, defeated and killed Lysimachus at theBattle of Corupedium, while Seleucus himself was killed a few months later. Philetaerus offered his services to Seleucus and his successors of theSeleucid Empire, but enjoyed considerable autonomy.[2] He extended his power and influence beyond just the city of Pergamon, making allies with neighboring city states. He contributed troops, money, and food to the city ofCyzicus, inMysia, for its defense against theinvading Gauls, thus gaining prestige and goodwill for him and his family.[3] He built the sanctuary of Demeter on the acropolis of Pergamon, the temple ofAthena (Pergamon's patron deity), and Pergamon's first palace. He added considerably to the city's fortifications.[3]
Philetaerus' nephew and adopted son,Eumenes I, succeeded him upon his death in 263 BC. He rebelled and defeated the Seleucid kingAntiochus I Soter near theLydian capital ofSardis in 261 BC. He created an outright independent Pergamene state, and greatly increased its territories. He established garrisons, such as Philetaireia, in the north at the foot ofMount Ida, which was named after his adoptive father, and Attaleia, in the east, to the northeast ofThyatira near the sources of the riverLycus, which was named after his grandfather. He also extended his control to the south of the riverCaïcus, reaching the Gulf of Cyme. Eumenes I minted coins with the portrait of Philetaerus, who during his reign had still been depicting the Seleucid kingSeleucus I Nicator on his coins.[4]
Attalus I (r. 241–197 BC) succeeded Eumenes I after being adopted as his son.[5] Early in his reign, he won a battlefield victory against theGalatians of Asia Minor (called Gauls byPausanias) at theBattle of the Caecus River.[6] This victory was a key to the legitimacy of Hellenistic kings, who styled themselves after Alexander the Great's legacy of military glories, and improved the standing and prestige of the kingdom.[4] Attalus took the nameSoter, "Savior", afterward, and explicitly took the title ofbasileus, king.[7] Several years later, the "War of the Brothers" broke out in the Seleucid Empire betweenSeleucus II Callinicus andAntiochus Hierax. Antiochus Hierax made alliances with other kings in Asia Minor, his base of power, including both the Galatians and the Cappadocians. Around 230 BC, Hireax attacked Pergamon with the help of the Galatians. Attalus defeated the Gauls and Antiochus in theBattle of Aphrodisium and in a second battle in the east. He then fought Antiochus alone in a battle nearSardis and in theBattle of the Harpasus inCaria in 229 BC. After this Antiochus left to start a campaign inMesopotamia, and then pivoted towardThrace in 227 BC. He was killed in battle against the Gauls and the Kingdom ofTylis.[8] With Antiochus Hierax's death, Attalus gained control over all Seleucid territories in Asia Minor north of theTaurus Mountains. He repulsed several attempts bySeleucus III Ceraunus, who had succeeded Seleucus II, to recover the lost territory. The newly expanded kingdom stretched over 143,000 square kilometres (55,000 sq mi).[8]
The expansion was not to last long. In 223 BC, Seleucus III crossed the Taurus, but was assassinated, and the generalAchaeus assumed control of the Seleucid army.Antiochus III the Great made Achaeus governor of the Seleucid territories north of the Taurus. Achaeus embarked upon a remarkably successful military campaign. Within two years, he had recovered the lost territories, taken parts of the traditional Pergamene heartland, and forced Attalus to retreat within the walls of Pergamon. However, Achaeus himself turned on Antiochus III and proclaimed himself a king, perhaps because he was accused of intending to revolt anyway, or perhaps simply drunk with success. By 220/219 BC, Achaeus and Attalus seem to have made peace.[9][10]
In 218 BC, Achaeus undertook an expedition to Selge, south of the Taurus. Attalus recaptured his former territories with the help of someThracian Gauls. Achaeus returned from his victorious campaign in 217 BC and hostilities between the two resumed. Attalus made an alliance with Antiochus III, who besieged Achaeus in Sardis in 214 BC. Antiochus captured the city and put Achaeus to death in the next year. Attalus regained control over his territories.[9]
The Attalids became allies of theRoman Republic during theFirst Macedonian War (214–205 BC), although their participation was rather ineffective and insignificant.[11][12] They would go on to support Rome in many subsequent wars. Attalus I, who had helped the Romans in the first war, also provided them with assistance in theSecond Macedonian War (200–197 BC).[13]
KingAntiochus III of the Seleucids seem to have conquered or at least cowed into neutrality much of Pergamene territory in 198 BC; by 196 BC, at least, it seems that Antiochus III was able to march his armies through the area without opposition, and important putatively Attalid cities such asPhocaea andThyatira were in Seleucid possession.[14] The authority of the Pergamene state was hanging by a thread whenEumenes II (r. 197–159 BC)[15] came to the throne in 197 BC. Eumenes II sought alliances with theAchaean League, rejected an offer of marriage and alliance with the Seleucids, and supported Rome in theRoman–Seleucid War of 192–188 BC.[16] In 188 BC, after the war's end by theTreaty of Apamea, the Romans seized the possessions of the defeated Antiochus III in Asia Minor and gave Mysia,Lydia,Phrygia, andPamphylia to the kingdom of Pergamon andCaria,Lycia andPisidia, in the southwestern corner of Asia Minor, toRhodes, another Roman ally. Later the Romans gave these possessions of Rhodes to Pergamon. These acquisitions were an enormous increase in the size and influence of Pergamon. During the reign of Eumenes II, the Pergamene would also fight theGalatian War,Prusias I of Bithynia (around 188–184 BC?),Pharnaces I of Pontus (around 183–179 BC?), and would aid the Romans again in theThird Macedonian War (171–168 BC).[16] Eumenes II also successfully intervened in Seleucid politics, aidingAntiochus IV Epiphanes in his quest to take the throne fromHeliodorus.[16]
Eumenes II was ill for the last decade of his life, and was succeeded by his brotherAttalus II as king in 159 BC, although Attalus II had already assumed many key responsibilities by then. Before he became king, he was a military commander. In 190 BC he took part in theBattle of Magnesia, which was the final victory of the Romans in the war against the Seleucids. In 189 BC he led the Pergamene troops which flanked the Roman army underGnaeus Manlius Vulso in the Galatian War. He was the lead commander in the war with Pontus, as well. After becoming king in his own right, he made war againstPrusias II of Bithynia in 156–154 BC with the help of the Romans.[17] He also made an alliance and received troops fromAriarathes V of Cappadocia, led by his son Demetrius. Attalus expanded his kingdom and founded the cities of Philadelphia and Attalea-in-Pamphylia. In 152 BC the two kings and Rome helped and fundedAlexander Balas in his successful bid to start a civil war in the Seleucid Empire and to seize the Seleucid throne fromDemetrius I Soter. In 149 BC, Attalus helpedNicomedes II Epiphanes to seize the Bithynian throne from his father Prusias II.[18] Attalus II also aided the Romans in theFourth Macedonian War, the final war that destroyed Macedonia as a political force.[19]
Not that much has survived in ancient sources of the reign of the last Attalid king,Attalus III; they tend to focus on his personal character rather than describe events during his reign. He seems to have continued to defend his kingdom militarily and to have funded various cults and religious works. He did not have any children, and bequeathed his realm to the Roman Republic in his will with his death in 133 BC.[20][21] In Rome, however, discussions about whether to accept the will started. Meanwhile, a man named Aristonicus, claiming to be the illegitimate son of Eumenes II, assumed the dynastic name of Eumenes III, attempted to overturn Attalus III's will, and apparently acquired authority at least in the core parts of the Pergamene empire. In 131 Rome sent an army against him which was defeated. However, a second force defeated Eumenes III in 130 BC. They annexed the former kingdom of Pergamon, which became theRoman province of Asia.[22][23]
After the Pergamene expansion in size and prestige in the early 2nd century BC, KingEumenes II embarked upon a vast building program in Pergamon to suit the capital's new prominence.[24] He expanded the Library of Pergamon that had probably been started by his father Attalus I, which adjoined the newly created Temple to Athena noted above. He also began construction of the greatPergamon Altar in the late 180s BC.
The Attalids also engaged in significant construction activity in many other cities within their domain. However, no specific ‘Attalid’ style can be identified in terms of architecture.[25]
Two notable cults in early Pergamon were the cult of theCabiri, a pantheon likely of originalPhrygian orThracian origin that became syncretized with Greek beliefs and mythology, and the Corybantes, worshippers of themother goddessCybele (possibly the Asia Minor equivalent of the Greek goddessRhea). Various art and statues were built to them. The worship of Cybele would later intersect with Roman history. According toLivy, during theSecond Punic War between Rome and Carthage (205 BC), theSibylline Oracle told the Senate that Carthage would be defeated if the cult of theMater Deum Magna Idaea (Magna Mater = "Great Mother") was imported into Rome. At the time, Pergamon was Rome's closest ally in the region of the Greek Eastern Mediterranean, and they sought out artifacts from the region that matched the request, where the closest equivalent goddess was Cybele. A sacred stone dedicated to Cybele under Pergamene stewardship was sent to Rome within a year (and possibly other relics), and the new cult in Rome took credit for Rome's eventual victory in 201 BC.[12][26]
Another cult of importance, if more common in the Hellenistic world, was to the goddessAthena. A temple to Athena seems to have been built around the beginning of the third century BC, while Lysimachus still acknowledged Seleucid suzerainty, and portraits of Athena appeared on coinage. A festival was also held calledPanathenaia, but nothing is known of it. By 220 BC, Attalus I is recorded as holding important games in Athena's honor, and likely expanding the precincts of Athena's temple. At some point at either the end of Attalus I's rule or near the start of Eumenes II's rule, Athena was given the local titleNikephoros, "bestower of victory." Eumenes II would create a magnificent new two-story temple to Athena, refounded the festival in her honor as the festival of Nikephoria in 181 BC, and dedicated a site outside the city with the name Nikephorion. The Nikephoria would be the most important religious celebration in Pergamum in the 2nd century BC.[27]
One notable example of religious art in Pergamon is thefrieze in the interior of thePergamon Altar depicting the life ofTelephus, son of the demigodHerakles. The ruling dynasty associated Telephus with its city and claimed him as its legendary forefather and the ancestor of the Attalids. Pergamon, having entered the Greek world much later than its counterparts to the west, could not boast the same divine heritage as older city-states and so had to cultivate its place in Greek mythology retroactively. Telephus defeating thegiants in the Gigantomachy was likely allegorical to the modern Attalids defeating the Galatians and Gauls in a similar battle of good vs. evil, to burnish the legitimacy of the dynasty. Similarly, the Attalids implausibly claimed a link to Alexander the Great viaPergamus, a very marginal figure who was a son ofAndromache andNeoptolemus. According to the Attalids, Pergamus had founded the city of Pergamon and named it after himself, while they claimed Andromache was a distant ancestor ofOlympias, Alexander's mother.[28]
| Attalid dynasty Δυναστεία των Ατταλιδών | |
|---|---|
| Country | Kingdom of Pergamon |
| Current region | Western Asia Minor |
| Place of origin | Paphlagonia |
| Founder | Philetaerus |
| Final ruler | Attalus III |
| Final head | Eumenes III |
| Deposition | 133 BC |
Knowledge of the dates of the reigns of the Attalid kings are largely based onStrabo'sGeography, with a few minor corrections by modern historians for apparent slips of the pen.[29][30]
A notable aspect of Attalid dynastic propaganda was the unity of the family and the avoiding of petty royal squabbles between siblings that consumed their neighbors in civil wars and assassinations. Perhaps spurred by the precariousness of their royal claim, the Attalids displayed remarkable cooperation between each other. Polybius hasPhilip V of Macedon praise the Attalids, his enemies, for their unity as instrumental to their success as he mourns the hatred between his own sons that brought down the Antigonid Macedonian kingdom. While this dialogue was surely a literary invention, it seems accurate that the Attalid royal court avoided scandal and appealed well to the common citizenry.[31]
| Attalus ∞ Boa | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Philetaerus ruler of Pergamon 282–263 BC | Eumenes ∞ Satyra | Attalus | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Eumenes I ruler of Pergamon 263–241 BC | Philetaerus (?) | Attalus ∞ Antiochis | Eumenes (?) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Attalus ISoter king of Pergamon 241–197 BC | Apollonis | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| (?) | Eumenes IISoter king of Pergamon 197–159 BC | Stratonice daughter of Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia | Attalus IIPhiladelphos king of Pergamon 159–138 BC | Philetaerus | Athenaeus | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Eumenes IIIAristonikos king of Pergamon 133–129 BC | Attalus IIIPhilometor king of Pergamon 138–133 BC | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Media related toPergamon at Wikimedia Commons
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