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Kingdom of Mutapa Mwene we Mutapa | |||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 15th century–1888 | |||||||||||||||||||
.png) Coat of arms granted to the Mwenemutapa in 1569 by the King of Portugal. | |||||||||||||||||||
| Capital | Various (incl.Zvongombe) | ||||||||||||||||||
| Common languages | Shona | ||||||||||||||||||
| Religion | Shona traditional religion | ||||||||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||||||||
| Mwenemutapa/Munhumutapa | |||||||||||||||||||
• 15th century | Nyatsimba Mutota (first, according to tradition) | ||||||||||||||||||
• 1740–1759 | Dehwe Mupunzagutu (last) | ||||||||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||||||||
• Established | 15th century | ||||||||||||||||||
• Portuguese protectorate | 1629 | ||||||||||||||||||
• Mutapa dynasty schism | 1712 | ||||||||||||||||||
• Disintegrated in Civil war | 1760 | ||||||||||||||||||
• Conquered by the Portuguese | 1888 | ||||||||||||||||||
| Area | |||||||||||||||||||
| 16th century[1][dubious –discuss] | 700,000 km2 (270,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||
TheMutapa Empire – also referred to asMwenemutapa orMunhumutapa, (Shona:Mwene we Mutapa,Portuguese:Monomotapa) – was an African empire in Zimbabwe, which expanded to what is now modern-dayMozambique,Botswana,Malawi, andZambia.
ThePortuguese termMonomotapa is a transliteration of theShona royal titleMwenemutapa derived from a combination of two words,Mwene meaning "Lord" andMutapa meaning "conquered land".[2] Over time the monarch's royal title was applied to the kingdom as a whole, and used to denote the kingdom's territory on maps from the period.[3]
The Mutapa Empire was situated on the northern part of theZimbabwean Plateau, which borders theZambezi andLimpopo rivers and valleys to the north and south respectively, theIndian Ocean in the east, and theKalahari Desert to the west. Several rivers traverse the Plateau, including theSave,Pungwe, andRunde.[4]: 5 The Plateau largely consists ofsavanna-woodland withmusasa andmunondo trees on higher ground, andmufuti andmunondo on lower ground.[5]: 2 The Plateau is inhabited by elephants, lions, leopards, and deer, among others.[4]: 7
Shonaoral tradition attributesGreat Zimbabwe's demise to a salt shortage, which may be a figurative way of speaking of land depletion for agriculturalists or of the depletion of critical resources for the community.[6][7]: 10 One version says that the founder of Mutapa,Mutota (also called "Nyatsimba" or "Nemasengere"), was the son of Zimbabweanmambo (king) Chimubatamatosi, and led an army north throughShangwe to conquerDande [ceb] while searching for salt.[a] A second version says that someKaranga from Great Zimbabwe migrated slowly to the northernZimbabwean Plateau. Accordingly, an elephant hunter in Shangwe named Mutota gained prominence, and took interest in trade along theZambezi, while also finding salt in Dande.[11]: 38–9 In the early-15th centuryAngoche traders had opened a new route along the Zambezi via theTonga andTavara to reach the goldfields close toKhami (capital of theKingdom of Butua).[11]: 39 [12]: 50–1 Accordingly the Karanga made alliances and intermarried with the Tonga and Tavara, and via influencing succession disputes they increased their power in the region. Mutota is said to have been an hunter-warrior in the militaristicNzou Samanyanga clan, which he led to Dande. Mutota established the capital of the nascent Mutapa Kingdom at Chitako-Changonya [ceb] Hill where he built a stone enclosure (zimbabwe), and he distributed land and administrative positions to his allies. Mutota is said to have extended his rule over 'Guruuswa' (a territory to the south) before his death.[11]: 39–40
Stan Mudenge wrote that Shona traditions are likely telescoped (compressed) due to them only mentioning around half of the known rulers, and that the events surrounding Mutota and his successors beforec. 1490 may have taken place over the course of several generations of rulers. Rulers belonging to different royal houses were sometimes 'forgotten' so as to weaken their claims to succession. Mudenge,David Beach, andInnocent Pikirayi consider the second version of tradition to be closer to the true process ofstate formation, and Beach and Pikirayi date this process to the 14th and 15th centuries.[13][14]: 176 [11]: 37–8 Beach thought that Mutota may have been a symbolic figure, as there is no mention of him as Mutapa's founder in traditions recorded before the 1860s; traditions recorded in the 18th century made no mention of him at all and held "Nemapangere" and "Nemangoro" as the first rulers.[b][8]: 61–2
Mutota is said to have been succeeded by one of his sons, eitherNemangoro orMatope (also called "Nyanhehwe" or "Nebedza"). Matope is more famous and widely revered, compared to Nemangoro about whom little is said, which Mudenge says indicates that Nemangoro must have ruled before Matope for mention of him to survive in some traditions. Traditions say that Mutota stated that any son wanting to succeed him had to commit incest with their sister Nyamhita, who became known asNehanda.[c] Tradition continues that Matope established hiszimbabwe in Bedza, and embarked on numerous military campaigns, first conquering all Tavara and Tonga from theMusengezi River [ceb] eastwards to theRuenya River [ceb]. During the campaign he allied a member of the localNguruve clan called Chimupore who was allocatedBarue; traditions vary on whether Matope extended his rule to theIndian Ocean at this time or just before his death. After this, Matope encountered resistance led by the TavaraNhari Unendoro clan nearChoma. The clan leader's spokesman wasKaruva,rainmaking-priest of theDzivagurucult. Based on traditions, Mudenge wrote that the Tavara fiercely resisted Matope, and that it was only when Karuva's son Chikuma betrayed the Tavara that he was able to subdue them. With this, Matope gained control over trade routes along the Zambezi, providing security at thebazaars nearSena for MuslimSwahili traders from Angoche.[11]: 40–5 Like with Mutota, Beach and Mudenge say that Matope may represent multiple rulers' reigns.[11]: 38 [8]: 68
According to tradition, Matope was succeeded by his son Mavhura, about whom little is known. Another of his sons,Nyahuma Mukombero, became king and expanded to conquerUteve. Uteve was a valuable region becauseKilwa andSofala (rivals ofAngoche) traded with the interior via it. Traditions say that the conquest was aided by the governor ofGuruuswa (Mutapa's southern province),Changamire I, though they vary on the details. One version says that Mukombero placed his son in charge of the newly-conquered land, while Teve traditions say that Changamire aided Bandahuma, a brother of theMwenemutapa, to flee his brother and found a new kingdom, becoming the firstSachiteve.[11]: 46
The genealogy of Changamire I has been the subject of speculation by scholars. Some scholars say he was a member of the Torwa dynasty ofButua or a friend of them, while others say he was a son of Matope or that he married one of Matope's daughters. After analysingValoyi traditions, Mathebula and Mokgoatšana say that Changamire was likely a descendant of both dynasties, being the son of Matope or having married Matope's daughter (or both were true and he married his sister).[17] According toDiogo de Alcáçova's 1506 account, rumours were spread by others close to Mukombero that Changamire (an influential Mutapa governor and member of the Torwa dynasty)[12]: 54 was plotting for the kingship, and Mukombero ordered Changamire to undertake apoison trial, wherein if he drank the poison (muteyo) and was harmed by it, he was deemed guilty. Accordingly, c. 1490 Changamire led an army to Mukombwe'szimbabwe and killed him, afterwards assuming the kingship. He is also said to have killed 21 of Mukombwe's sons, withChikuyo Chisamarengu being the only one to escape.[11]: 47–8 Around 1494, Chikuyo returned with a large army, and they fought a long and deadly battle ending in Changamire I's death. Chikuyo assumed the kingship and consolidated his rule over the empire, except forGuruuswa which stayed loyal to the successor Changamire II; over the course of the following decades theMwenemutapa is known to have fought Changamire II (likely aided by Butua) intermittently, until at least 1512.[18]: 119 [12]: 54 [11]: 48–9
Meanwhile,Sachiteve Bandahuma of Uteve gradually became independent with the help of Changamire II, and both Bandahuma andMwenemutapa Chikuyo set their sights on conquering the highlands ofManyika, situated in betweenGuruuswa and Uteve. A loyal vassal of Mukombero,Barue king Makombe, sent his son Chikanga who occupied Manyika and fended off Bandahuma's son Nyamunda, who turned to conquerMadanda and installed a brother asSedanda. The following years saw Sofala's trade route re-established, and in 1506 thePortuguese gained control of Sofala. There was relative peace between Mutapa and its enemies, until c. 1515 when Nyamunda began campaigns to expand his territory. Nyamunda sought to expand towards Sofala and then gain the Portuguese's help in conquering Manyika from Mutapa, after which he'd control the lucrative trade route. However the Portuguese had little to offer and sought relations with Mutapa, resulting in relations between them and Nyamunda souring. As the Mutapa-Teve war ensued, Chikuyo faced two revolts (one by a general named Sono) and reportedly warred with Butua. Chikuyo died around 1530, and is said to have been succeeded byMwenemutapa 'Neshangwe Munembire' (Beach says that he likely isn't historical, as "neshangwe" "munembire" literally means "ruler of Shangwe" "person of Mbire").[13][11]: 49–55 In the following decades, the Portuguese supplanted Swahili traders along the Zambezi trade route by replacing the bazaars with the settlements ofQuelimane,Sena, andTete. Little is known about the Mutapa-Teve wars, except that it was reignited for a short time during the early 1540s. In 1547, aMuslim trader, supported by the Portuguese, led a campaign against theSachiteve (either Nyamunda or his successor Chipute) to conquer the lands around the "River of Sofala" (either theBuzi orPungwe river).[11]: 55–57
According to tradition,Mwenemutapa 'Neshangwe Munembire' was succeeded byChivere Nyasoro (son of Chikuyo) c. 1550, who is said to have murdered an older brother to gain the kingship. During his reign, a son of 'Neshangwe Munembire' called 'Nyandoro Mukomohasha' is said to have reconquered and ruled the Tonga in between theRuya [ceb] andMazoe rivers and to have been appointed as thesupreme commander of Mutapa's armies to guard the Zambezi trade route; local traditions say that theNyandoro dynasty preceded other local dynasties. Contrary to Mutapa tradition, contemporary Portuguese records said that theMukomohasha was "Tonga", and both proposed successor dynasties have a Tavaratotem.[13][11]: 57 Chivere was succeeded by his sonNegomo Mupunzagutu around 1560.[d][11]: 59 Negomo was told that a prestigious Portuguesemhondoro/n'anga (medium/diviner) would be sent to his court, and in 1561Gonçalo da Silveira arrived at Negomo'szimbabwe. Silveira was an ardent anti-Muslim nobleman and member of theSociety of Jesus, who sought to convert theMwenemutapa to Christianity so that he would favour Portuguese traders and counter Muslim influence, an attitude that contradicted the diverse and collaborative culture of trade along the Zambezi. The young and unmarried Negomo was impressed by Silveira, and after experiencing dreams about theVirgin Mary, he agreed to bebaptised. Silveira'sasceticism and generosity increased his influence, and he baptised hundreds of high-ranking officials. Religious leaders (who Mudenge wrote were key for the state's cohesiveness), Muslim traders, and court officials who had refused to be converted saw Silveira as a threat and collaborated to turn Negomo against him. Historians have traditionally interpreted the conspiracy as having told Negomo Silveira was a secret ally ofSachiteve Chipute, Portuguese imperialist, andmuroyi (wizard), though Gai Roufe says that Silveira was viewed as embodying the spirit ofKaruva/Dzivaguru (a foreignspirit,shavi [sn], which were feared).[e] Silveira was strangled with rope or ribbon and thrown into theMusengezi River [ceb].[19][11]: 65–8 Days later, Portuguese merchants arrived to say that God would punish Negomo and theviceroy would send an army to avenge Silveira; Negomo blamed Muslims and had those involved killed. Famine and disease followed soon after which greatly unsettled Negomo. Nevertheless, Mudenge says that Silveira's revolution had been suppressed.[11]: 68–9
Silveira's murder was all the justification the Portuguese needed to penetrate the interior and take control of the gold mines and ivory routes. After a lengthy preparation, anexpedition of 1,000 men underFrancisco Barreto was launched in 1568. They managed to get as far as the upperZambezi, but local disease decimated the force. The Portuguese returned to their base in 1572 and took their frustrations out on the Swahili traders, whom they massacred. They replaced them with Portuguese and their half-African progeny who became prazeiros (estate holders) of the lower Zambezi. Mutapa maintained a position of strength exacting a subsidy from each captain ofPortuguese Mozambique that took the office. The Mwenemutapa also levied a duty of 50 percent on all trade goods imported.[20]
Mutapa proved invulnerable to attack and even economic manipulation due to the Mwenemutapa's strong control over gold production.[20] What posed the greatest threat was infighting among different factions which led to opposing sides calling on the Portuguese for military aid. However, the Portuguese proved to be happy with the downfall of the Mutapa state.
In 1629 the Mwenemutapa attempted to throw out the Portuguese. He failed and in turn he himself was overthrown, leading to the Portuguese installation ofMavura Mhande Felipe on the throne.[21] Mutapa signed treaties making it a Portuguese vassal and ceding gold mines, but none of these concessions were ever put into effect.[20] Mutapa remained nominally independent, though practically a client state. All the while, Portugal increased control over much of southeast Africa with the beginnings of a colonial system. The Portuguese were now in control of the trade and the trade routes.
Another problem for Mutapa was that its tributaries such as Kiteve, Madanda andManyika ceased paying tribute. At the same time, a new kingdom under theRozvi dynasty near Barwe was on the rise. All of this was hastened byPortugal retaining a presence on the coast and in the capital.[20] At least one part of the 1629 treaty that was acted on was the provision allowing Portuguese settlement within Mutapa. It also allowed the praezeros to establish fortified settlements across the kingdom. In 1663, the praezeros were able to depose MwenemutapaSiti Kazurukamusapa and put their own nominee,Kamharapasu Mukombwe on the throne.[22]
In the 17th century, a low ranking Mutapa prince broke away from the Empire, invading the neighboring Kingdom of Butua. The leader of this dynasty was known asChangamire Dombo (pronounced as Ɗömbö). A possible reason for the breakaway was Dombo's dissatisfaction with the levels of Portuguese interference in the Mwenemutapa Empire's governance.[citation needed]
By the late 17th century, Changamire Domborakonachingwango was actively challenging Mutapa. In 1684 his forces encountered and decisively defeated those of Mwenemutapa Kamharapasu Mukombwe just south of Mutapa's metro district at theBattle of Mahungwe. When Mukombwe died in 1692, a succession crisis erupted. The Portuguese backed one successor and Dombo another. In support of his candidate, Changamire Dombo razed the Portuguese fair-town of Dembarare next to the Mutapa capital and slaughtered the Portuguese traders and their entire following. From 1692 until 1694, Mwenemutapa Nyakambira ruled Mutapa independently. Nyakambira was later killed in battle with the Portuguese who then placedNyamaende Mhande on the throne as their puppet.
In 1695, Dombo overran the gold-producing Kingdom of Manyika and took his army east and destroyed the Portuguese fair-town of Masikwesi. This gave him complete control of all gold-producing territory from Butwa to Manyika, supplanting Mutapa as the premier Shona Kingdom in the region.[23]
It appears neither the Rozwi nor the Portuguese could maintain control of the Mutapa state for very long, and it moved back and forth between the two throughout the 17th century. Far from a victim of conquest, the Mutapa rulers actually invited in foreign powers to bolster their rule. This included vassalage toPortuguese East Africa from 1629 to 1663 and vassalage to theRozwi Empire from 1663 until the Portuguese return in 1694. Portuguese control of Mutapa was maintained or at least represented by an armed garrison at the capital. In 1712, yet another coveter of the throne invited the Rozwi back to put him on the throne and kick out the Portuguese. This they did, and Mutapa again came under the control of the Rozwi Empire. The new MwenemutapaSamatambira Nyamhandu I become their vassal, while the outgoing king was forced to retreat to Chidama in what is nowMozambique.
The Rozwi quickly lost interest in Mutapa, as they sought to consolidate their position in the south. Mutapa regained its independence around 1720. By this time, the Kingdom of Mutapa had lost nearly all of the Zimbabwe plateau to theRozwi Empire. In 1723, Nyamhandi moved his capital into the valley near the Portuguese trading settlement ofTete, underMwenemutapa Nyatsusu. Upon his death in 1740, the youngDehwe Mapunzagutu took power. He sought Portuguese support and invited them back to Mutapa along with their garrison of armed men, but Mutapa remained independent.
The Mwenemutapa died in 1759, sparking yet another civil war for the throne. This one was more destructive than its predecessors and Mutapa never recovered. The "winners" ended up governing an even more reduced land from Chidima. They used the titleMambo a Chidima and ruled independently of Portugal until 1917 whenMambo Chioko, the last king of the dynasty, was killed in battle against the Portuguese.
The state was headed by amambo (king/emperor) with the titleMwenemutapa. Aroyal court was calledzimbabwe ("large house of stone"), and was enclosed by stone walls and located at the capital. Some later rulers built their courts out of mud and wood, enclosed by wood fences. A newMwenemutapa could relocate the capital, though that was only usually done if strategically necessary. Capitals were initially located in theDande [ceb]-Musengezi [ceb] area, and moved to the region ofChidima [ceb] (modern-dayMozambique) in the 18th century. Wives of theMwenemutapa (vakaranga; "junior wives") were chosen from the daughters of his vassals (reinforcing political relations and alliances), and numbered in the hundreds (possibly thousands according to one source). They were divided into nine 'houses', the heads of which wereMazvarira,Nehanda,Nabuiza,Navemba,Nemangore,Nezangoapangi,Nemangoro,Nessanhi, andNecharunda.Mazvarira andNehanda were sisters or close relatives of theMwenemutapa and served as ambassadors to thePortuguese andSwahili traders respectively, while onlyNabuiza lived with theMwenemutapa as the first 'non-ritualistic' wife. Traditionally the only sister-wife ofMatope,Nehanda was likely the initial Chief Wife, thoughMazvarira is recorded as holding the position in the 16th and 17th centuries (possibly because of the importance of relations with the Portuguese).Nehanda was Chief Wife in the 18th century, though she had lost her authority and power as the state had lost control of Handa (in Dande). Only the sister-wives were permitted to have sexual relations with people other than theMwenemutapa, and their children were not eligible for the kingship. In the 16th and 17th centuries the eight chief wives besidesNabuiza lived in large settlements not far from the capital and had their ownpolities and 'palaces'.[24]: 77–9, 104–10
The royal court included theDare (Council), which consisted of theMwenemutapa's ministers and advisors (appointed by him personally, sometimes from specific families). TheNengomasha was theChief Minister and the second most powerful figure in the state.Stan Mudenge wrote that the holder of the position was likely a prince, and that its description as "governor of the kingdoms/provinces" may mean the holder liaised with provincial governors, or that he had a role in appointing their successors. In the 18th and 19th centuries, theNengomasha house lost their position as Chief Minister, and instead became guardians of the royal graves along with other royal houses. TheNevinje (heir) became the second most powerful figure, while the position of Chief Minister went to theNevinga house andNechinanga clan in the 18th and 19th centuries respectively. TheMukomohasha was thesupreme commander of Mutapa's forces, though the state did not have astanding army. AfterNyambo Kaparidze (of theMukomohasha house) lost the kingship toMavura in the 17th century, the position of supreme commander primarily went to theNechinanga clan, and was held by theChimumo in the 19th century. TheAmbuya (a position held by aTavara) was theChief Steward andtreasurer, and was in charge of royal finances and appointing theMazvarira. The position ofmbokorume was held by theMwenemutapa'sson-in-law, who served as the king's loyalright-hand man. Other important offices present at the royal court included the Chief Musician (in charge of the court musicians), theChief Door-Keeper (Nyamasuo), the ChiefN'anga/Diviner (Netondo), and another priest titledBushu (the latter two were held by Tavaras due to them beingvaridzi vevhu, "owners of the soil"). Family members such as theMwenemutapa's mother, uncles, and princes (machinda) could also attend court and offer advice. Minor positions included bodyguards/executioners, musicians, dancers,praise singers, cooks, andpages (who were the sons of provincial rulers).[24]: 85–104
In theory, thesuccession system wasadelphiccollateral succession, where the kingship rotated betweenroyal houses (said to derive from Mutota's sons), travelling from brother to brother until that generation is exhausted, before moving to the first son of the first brother, then to the first son of the second brother etc. In practice, succession often saw conflict between brothers and was decided by force, greatly weakening the state;Stan Mudenge wrote that of the 28 successions between 1692 and 1902, 16 involved conflict, 3 were peaceful, and 9 were unknown.[24]: 79–84 During the mourning period (chiriro) after a ruler's death, a state of war (Pembere) was traditionally declared.[19] The mourning period was accompanied by complete lawlessness, reportedly to emphasise the importance of having aMwenemutapa. An 18th-century source says that a deceasedMwenemutapa's body wasexcarnated by being hung in a hut, then wrapped in cow skin and buried in theirzimbabwe. The senior wife and some other women lived at the gravesite and served as its guardians. The futuremhondoro (medium/royal spirit) of the deceasedMwenemutapa also resided there.[25][24]: 80–1
As part of a new ruler'scoronation, Gai Roufe says that the tradition ofMatope's conquest ofKaruva/Chikara was re-enacted: in the 18th century a chief minister took on the title ofNevinga and ruled for three days, after which the candidate told theNevinga he had to die so that he could govern. TheNevinga was then strangled with a ribbon by a group led by thembokorume. If there was a succession conflict, the losing candidate was captured alive and held in luxurious custody for three days before being killed in the same way.[19] The practice of initiating aNevingainterregnum ended in the mid-18th century, either having been abolished byMwenemutapaNyamhandu due to no ministers wanting the title, or having fallen out of use because there were no longer any peaceful successions. During the coronation, a cow was killed and offered to the royalmidzimu (ancestral spirits), as well as to the spirit of Chikara byDzivaguru priests. TheMwenemutapa was then crowned byNetondo (representingDzivaguru priests).Royal regalia likely included achiremba choumambo (crown), aquite (throne) orstool, a black-woodassegai with a solid-gold tip, asvimbo (knobkerrie), and amubhadha (staff).[24]: 79–80, 84
Themhondoro institution is said to have been created byMatope, who proclaimed that hisspirit was immortal and that it would pass through a lion (the literal meaning ofmhondoro), allowing it to serve the population forever. Accordingly, his sisterNehanda and his brothersNemangoro andSamarengo followed suit. Together withMhondoroMutota, they comprised the principal/nationalmhondoro.Mhondoro had their own defined 'spirit provinces' in which thesvikiro (medium, also calledmhondoro while possessed) resided. LaterMwenemutapas also becamemhondoro, which were associated with theirroyal houses, as did local chiefs. Others mentioned in 18th-century records includeMhondoro Nyamasoka,Mhondoro Nyamapfeka, andMhondoro Nyamukova. In 18th- and 19th-century Portuguese records, Matope is mentioned as the suprememhondoro, though since the return of Mutota'smhondoro in the late-19th or early-20th century, seniority has reflected the Mutapa genealogy. The nationalmhondoro were consulted on national matters such as war, succession disputes,rainmaking, and natural disasters, and they implicitly served to voice the consensus among the population, due to the risk of the people claiming asvikiro had been fooled by a spirit or denouncing them as a fraud. Their support for theMwenemutapa was crucial to the stability and cohesiveness of the state.[26]: 123–7
Shona socio-political organisation consisted of increasing units of size, namely the nuclear family (imba), the village (musha), the ward (dunhu), and the chiefdom/province (nyika).[f] Theimba (which included a husband, his wife/wives, and their children) lived in a compound (mana) which had adjacent fields to grow crops. The largest of these belonged to the father, as thefamily head, and was worked on by everyone, though the wife/wives and older children also owned gardens. The father attended the village council (dare), and did hunting, cattle-keeping, and strenuous labour, while the wife/wives did housework, cooking (including brewing beer), and agricultural work. The position ofvillage head (samusha ormwenewamusha) usually belonged to the family head of the original founders of the village, and villages tended to consist of male kin and their families ('outsiders' residing in the village were calledvutorwa, and may be incorporated via the establishment of 'perpetual kinship' relations). Villages split if the population grew too big, and moved location so as to avoidland degradation. Work parties (nhimbe orhumwe) in a village were generally attended by men and 'mature' women, and were organised if someone wanted help with their labour (the wife brewed beer for such occasions). Though men were generally expected to be competent in all tasks, specialists (nyanzvi) were often hired, and were believed to be gain their proficiency from being imbued with spirits. Atdare, men expressed views and raised issues, with fines sometimes being imposed; women were only permitted to attend if invited. A ward was usually defined by natural boundaries, and headed by asadunhu (usually a descendant of the first man in the region or of a conquering dynasty). Capitals of wards were callednzanga and had a higher level ofdare, to which village heads occasionally attended. Rest days orzvisi (sing.chisi) were held on the day the originalsadunhu was thought to have died (weeks were 10 days long and comprised months which were 30 days long). People paid tribute to asadunhu with labour (zunde).Nyika were headed by chiefs (madzishe) whose capitals were referred to asmizinda (sing.muzinda), and had a higher leveldare. Chiefs receivedzunde from subjects nearby, while tribute (mupeto) from those further away was paid in goods. They also could raise large armies.[4]: 9–20
The Emperor Mutope had left the empire with a well-organised religion with a powerful shamanism. The religion of the Mutapa kingdom revolved around ritual consultation of spirits and of ancestors. Shrines were maintained within the capital by spirit mediums known asmhondoro. Themhondoro also served as oral historians recording the names and deeds of past kings.[27]
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