TheKingdom of Kush (/kʊʃ,kʌʃ/;Egyptian:𓎡𓄿𓈙𓈉kꜣš,Assyrian:Kûsi, inLXX Χους or Αἰθιοπία;Coptic:ⲉϭⲱϣEcōš;Hebrew:כּוּשׁKūš), also known as theKushite Empire, or simplyKush, was an ancient kingdom inNubia, centered along theNile Valley in what is now northernSudan and southernEgypt.
The region of Nubia was an early cradle of civilization, producing several complex societies that engaged in trade and industry.[9] The city-state ofKerma emerged as the dominant political force between 2450 and 1450 BC, controlling the Nile Valley between the first and fourthcataracts, an area as large as Egypt. The Egyptians were the first to identify Kerma as "Kush" probably from the indigenous ethnonym "Kasu", over the next several centuries the two civilizations engaged in intermittent warfare, trade, and cultural exchange.[10]
Much of Nubia came under Egyptian rule during theNew Kingdom period (1550–1070 BC). Following Egypt's disintegration amid theLate Bronze Age collapse, the Kushites reestablished a kingdom inNapata (now modernKarima, Sudan). Though Kush had developed many cultural affinities with Egypt, such as the veneration ofAmun, and the royal families of both kingdoms occasionally intermarried, Kushite culture, language and ethnicity was distinct; Egyptian art distinguished the people of Kush by their dress, appearance, and even method of transportation.[9]
In the 8th century BC,King Kashta ("the Kushite") peacefully became King of Upper Egypt, while his daughter,Amenirdis, was appointed as Divine Adoratrice of Amun inThebes.[11] His successorPiye invaded Lower Egypt, establishing the Kushite-ruledTwenty-fifth Dynasty. Piye's daughter,Shepenupet II, was also appointed Divine Adoratrice of Amun. Themonarchs of Kush ruled Egypt for over a century until theAssyrian conquest, being dethroned by theAssyrian kingsEsarhaddon andAshurbanipal in the mid-seventh century BC. Following the severing of ties with Egypt, the Kushite imperial capital was located atMeroë, during which time it was known by the Greeks asAethiopia.
The northernmost part of Nubia was occupied from the third century BC to the third century AD, first by thePtolemaic Kingdom and then by theRoman Empire. At the end of this 600-year period, the territory, known in the Greco-Roman world asDodekaschoinos, was taken back by the Kushite kingYesebokheamani. The Kingdom of Kush persisted as a major regional power until the fourth century AD, when it weakened and disintegrated amid worsening climatic conditions, internal rebellions, and foreign invasions— notably by theNoba people, who introduced the Nubian languages and gave their name to Nubia itself. While the Kushites were occupied by war with the Noba and theBlemmyes, theAksumites took the opportunity to capture Meroë and loot its gold.NegusEzana then took on the title of "King of Ethiopia,"[12] a practice which would last into the modern period and was recorded in inscriptions found in both Axum and Meroe. Although the Aksumite presence was likely short-lived, it prompted the dissolution of the Kushite kingdom into the three polities ofNobatia,Makuria andAlodia. The Kingdom of Alodia subsequently gained control of the southern territory of the former Meroitic empire, including parts of Eritrea.[13]
Long overshadowed by Egypt, archaeological discoveries since the late 20th century have revealed Kush to be an advanced civilization. The Kushites had their own unique language and script; maintained a complex economy based on trade and industry; mastered archery; and developed a complex, urban society with uniquely high levels of female participation.[14]
It is also an ethnic term for the native population who initiated the kingdom of Kush. The term is also displayed in the names of Kushite persons,[18] such as KingKashta (a transcription ofkꜣš-tꜣ "(one from) the land of Kush"). Geographically, Kush referred to the region south of thefirst cataract in general. Kush also was the home of the rulers of the25th Dynasty.[19]
The nameKush, since at least the time ofJosephus, has been connected with the biblical characterCush, in theHebrew Bible (Hebrew:כּוּשׁ), son ofHam (Genesis 10:6). Ham had four sons named: Cush,Put,Canaan, andMizraim (Hebrew name for Egypt). According to the Bible,Nimrod, a son of Cush, was the founder and king ofBabylon,Erech,Akkad andCalneh, inShinar (Gen 10:10).[20] The Bible also makes reference to someone named Cush who is aBenjamite (Psalms 7:1, KJV).[21]
InGreek sources Kush was known asKous (Κους) orAethiopia (Αἰθιοπία).[22]
Megaliths from Nabta Playa displayed in the Aswan Nubian museum
TheNabta Playa civilization emerged in Nubia around 7500 BC.[23][24] Megaliths discovered at Nabta Playa are early examples of what seems to be one of the world's firstastronomical devices, predatingStonehenge by almost 2,000 years.[25] Archaeological discoveries reveal that theseNew Stone Age peoples seem to have lived more organized lives than theircontemporaries nearer to and in theNile Valley.[26] The people of Nabta Playa hadvillages with 'planned' layouts, with deepwells that held water year-round.
The A-Group was a civilization in Nubia that lasted from the 4th millennium BC, reached its climax atc. 3100 BC, and fell 200 years laterc. 2900 BC.[27] Reisner named this society the A-Group, which is now an outdated archaeological term, but remained in the literature. Early hubs of this civilization included Kubaniyya in the north andBuhen in the south, withAswan, Sayala, Toshka andQustul in between.[28]
Mirror. End ofKerma Period, 1700-1550 BC. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
TheKerma culture was a civilization centered inKerma,Sudan. It flourished from around 2500 BC to 1500 BC in ancientNubia. The Kerma culture was based in the southern part of Nubia, or "Upper Nubia" (in parts of present-day northern and centralSudan), and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the border of Egypt.[29] The polity seems to have been one of severalNile Valley states during theMiddle Kingdom of Egypt. In the Kingdom of Kerma's latest phase, lasting from about 1700–1500 BC, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom ofSaï and became a sizable, populous empire rivaling Egypt.
Mentuhotep II, the 21st century BC founder of theMiddle Kingdom, is recorded to have undertaken campaigns against Kush in the 29th and 31st years of his reign. This is the earliest Egyptian reference toKush; theNubian region had gone by other names in the Old Kingdom.[30] UnderThutmose I, Egypt made several campaigns south.
The Egyptians ruled Kush in the New kingdom beginning when the Egyptian King Thutmose I occupied Kush and destroyed its capital, Kerma.[31]
Resistance to the early eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian rule by neighboring Kush is evidenced in the writings ofAhmose, son of Ebana, an Egyptian warrior who served under Nebpehtrya Ahmose (1539–1514 BC), Djeserkara Amenhotep I (1514–1493 BC), and Aakheperkara Thutmose I (1493–1481 BC). At the end of theSecond Intermediate Period (mid-sixteenth century BC), Egypt faced the twin existential threats—theHyksos in the North and the Kushites in the South. Taken from the autobiographical inscriptions on the walls of his tomb-chapel, the Egyptians undertook campaigns to defeat Kush and conquer Nubia under the rule ofAmenhotep I (1514–1493 BC). In Ahmose's writings, the Kushites are described asarchers, "Now after his Majesty had slain the Bedoin of Asia, he sailed upstream toUpper Nubia to destroy the Nubian bowmen."[33] The tomb writings contain two other references to the Nubian bowmen of Kush. By 1200 BC, Egyptian involvement in theDongola Reach was nonexistent.
According toJosephus Flavius, the biblical Moses led the Egyptian army in a siege of the Kushite city of Meroe. To end the siege Princess Tharbis was given to Moses as a (diplomatic) bride, and thus the Egyptian army retreated back to Egypt.[34]
Relief from the temple ofSemna depicting queen-kingKarimala approachingIsis, 10th–9th century BC[35]
With the disintegration of the New Kingdom around 1070 BC,Kush became an independent kingdom centered atNapata in modern northern Sudan.[36] This more-Egyptianized "Kingdom of Kush" emerged, possibly from Kerma, and regained the region's independence from Egypt. The extent of cultural/political continuity between theKerma culture and the chronologically succeeding Kingdom of Kush is difficult to determine. The latter polity began to emerge around 1000 BC, 500 years after the end of the Kingdom of Kerma.[citation needed]
The first Kushite king known by name wasAlara, who ruled somewhere between 800[37] and 760 BC.[38] No contemporary inscriptions of him exist.[37] He was first mentioned in the funerary stela of his daughterTabiry, the wife of kingPiye. Later royal inscriptions remember Alara as the founder of the dynasty, some calling him "chieftain", others "king". A 7th century inscription claimed that his sister was the grandmother of kingTaharqo.[39] An inscription of the 5th century kingAmanineteyerike remembered Alara's reign as long and successful.[40] Alara was probably buried at el-Kurru, although there exists no inscription to identify his tomb.[37] It has been proposed that it was Alara who turned Kush from a chiefdom to an Egyptianized kingdom centered around the cult ofAmun.[41]
Alara's successorKashta extended Kushite control north toElephantine andThebes inUpper Egypt. Kashta's successorPiye seized control of Lower Egypt around 727 BC.[42] Piye'sVictory Stela, celebrating these campaigns between 728 and 716 BC, was found in the Amun temple at Jebel Barkal. He invaded an Egypt fragmented into four kingdoms, ruled by KingPeftjauawybast, KingNimlot, KingIuput II, and KingOsorkon IV.[43]: 115, 120
Why the Kushites chose to enter Egypt at this crucial point of foreign domination is subject to debate. Archaeologist Timothy Kendall offers his own hypotheses, connecting it to a claim of legitimacy associated withJebel Barkal.[45] Kendall cites the Victory Stele of Piye at Jebel Barkal, which states that "Amun of Napata granted me to be ruler of every foreign country," and "Amun in Thebes granted me to be ruler of the Black Land (Kmt)". According to Kendall, "foreign lands" in this regard seems to include Lower Egypt while "Kmt" seems to refer to a united Upper Egypt and Nubia.[45]
Piye's successor,Shabataka, defeated the Saite kings of northern Egypt between 711 and 710 BC and installed himself as king inMemphis. He then established ties withSargon II of theNeo-Assyrian Empire.[43]: 120 After the reign ofShabaka, PharaohTaharqa's army undertook successful military campaigns, as attested by the "list of conquered Asiatic principalities" from the Mut temple at Karnak and "conquered peoples and countries (Libyans, Shasu nomads, Phoenicians?, Khor in Palestine)" from Sanam temple inscriptions.[46] However the regions in the southern Levant claimed by Shabataka were seen by Assyria as under their dominion, and imperial ambitions of both theMesopotamian basedAssyrian Empire andKushite Empire made war with the 25th dynasty inevitable. In 701 BC, Taharqa and his army aidedJudah and KingHezekiah in withstanding a siege by KingSennacherib of the Assyrians (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9).[47] There are various theories (Taharqa's army,[48] disease, divine intervention, Hezekiah's surrender or agreeing to pay tribute) as to why the Assyrians failed to take the city.[49] HistorianLászló Török mentions that Egypt's army "was beaten at Eltekeh" under Taharqa's command, but "the battle could be interpreted as a victory for the double kingdom", since Assyria did not take Jerusalem, however the Egyptian and Kushite forces withdrew to Egypt and the Assyrian kingSennacherib appears to have occupied part of the Sinai.[50]
Pyramids ofNuri, built between the reigns ofTaharqa (c. 670 BC) andNastasen (c. 310 BC)
The power of the 25th Dynasty reached a climax underTaharqa. The Nile valley empire was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom. New prosperity[18] revived Egyptian culture.[51] Religion, the arts, and architecture were restored to their glorious Old, Middle, and New Kingdom forms. The Kushite pharaohs built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal.[52][53] It was during the 25th dynasty that the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids (many in modern Sudan) since the Middle Kingdom.[54][55][56] The Kushites developed their own script, theMeroitic alphabet, which was influenced by Egyptian writing systemsc. 700–600 BC, although it appears to have been wholly confined to the royal court and major temples.[57]
Wall panel depictingAssyrian soldiers storming a Kushite fortress in Egypt.Niniveh,Iraq.
Taharqa and hisJudean allies initially defeated the Assyrians atAshkelon when war broke out in 674 BC.[citation needed] The relatively small Assyrian force had first defeafed Canaanite and Arab tribes in the region and then immediately marched at great speed on Ashkelon, leaving them exhausted.[citation needed] However, in 671 BC, the Assyrian KingEsarhaddon started theAssyrian conquest of Egypt with a larger and better prepared force. The Assyrians advanced rapidly and decisively. Memphis was taken, and Taharqa fled to Nubia, while his heir and other family members were taken to the Assyrian capitalNineveh as prisoners. Esarhaddon boasted how he "deported all Aethiopians from Egypt, leaving not one to pay homage to me" However, the native Egyptian vassal rulers installed by Esarhaddon as puppets were unable to effectively retain full control of the entire country, and Taharqa was able to regain control of Memphis. Esarhaddon's 669 BC campaign to once more eject Taharqa was abandoned when Esarhaddon died inHarran on the way to Egypt, leaving Esarhaddon's successor,Ashurbanipal the task. He defeated Taharqa, driving his forces back into Nubia, and Taharqa died in Napata soon after in 664 BC.[43]: 121
Wall painting of kingTantamani from his tomb inel-Kurru, under whom Egypt was lost for good
Taharqa's successor,Tantamani sailed north from Napata, throughElephantine, and to Thebes with a large army, where he was "ritually installed as the king of Egypt."[58] From Thebes, Tantamani began his attempt at reconquest[58] and regained control of a part of southern Egypt as far as Memphis from the native Egyptian puppet rulers installed by the Assyrians.[59] Tantamani's dream stele states that he restored order from the chaos, where royal temples and cults were not being maintained.[58] After defeating Sais and killing Assyria's vassal,Necho I, in Memphis, "some local dynasts formally surrendered, while others withdrew to their fortresses."[58]: 185 Tantamani proceeded north of Memphis, invading Lower Egypt and, besieged cities in the Delta, a number of which surrendered to him.[citation needed] The Assyrians, who had maintained only a small military presence in the north, then sent a large army southwards in 663 BC. Tantamani was decisively routed, and the Assyrian armysacked Thebes to such an extent it never truly recovered. Tantamani was chased back to Nubia, but he continued to try and assert control over Upper Egypt untilc. 656 BC. At this date, a native Egyptian ruler,Psamtik I son of Necho, placed on the throne as a vassal ofAshurbanipal, took control of Thebes.[18][60] The last links between Kush and Upper Egypt were severed after hostilities with the Saite kings in the 590s BC.[43]: 121–122
Kushite civilization continued for several centuries. According to Welsby, "throughout the Saite, Persian, Ptolemaic, and Roman periods, the Kushite rulers—the descendants of the XXVth Dynasty pharaohs, and the guardians of the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal[61]—could have pressed their 'legitimate' claim for control of Egypt and they thus posed a potential threat to the rulers of Egypt."[59]: 66–67
Kushite delegation on a Persian relief from theApadana palace (c. 500 BC)
From around 425–300 BC, beginning under the rule of kingAmannote-erike, Kush saw a series of kings who revitalized older practices such as the erection of royal steles or royal statues. It was likely also in this period when several older pyramids, among them that of Taharqo, were enlarged. The stele of kingHarsiotef, who from around 400 BC ruled for at least 35 years, reports how he fought a multitude of campaigns against enemies ranging from Meroe in the south to Lower Nubia in the north while also donating to temples throughout Kush. KingNastasen (c. 325) waged several wars against nomad groups and again in Lower Nubia.[65] Nastasen was the last king to be buried at Nuri.[66] His successors built six pyramids at Jebel Barkal and two in the old necropolis of el-Kurru, although the lack of inscriptions prevents identifying their occupants. It seems likely that this was a time of unrest and conflict within the royal elite.[67]
Aspelta moved the capital toMeroë, considerably farther south thanNapata, possiblyc. 591 BC,[68] just after the sack of Napata byPsamtik II.Martin Meredith states the Kushite rulers chose Meroë, between theFifth and Sixth Cataracts, because it was on the fringe of the summer rainfall belt, and the area was rich in iron ore and hardwood foriron working. The location also afforded access to trade routes to theRed Sea. The Kush traded iron products with the Romans, in addition to gold, ivory and slaves. TheButana plain was stripped of its forests, leaving behindslag piles.[69][70]
Jewelry found on the Mummy of Nubian KingAmaninatakilebte (538-519 BC), Nuri pyramid 10. Museum of Fine Arts, BostonGold flower shaped diadem, found in the Pyramid of KingTalakhamani (435–431 BC),Nuri pyramid 16. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
In about 300 BC, the move to Meroë was made more complete when themonarchs began to be buried there, instead of at Napata. One theory is that this represents the monarchs breaking away from the power of the priests at Napata. According toDiodorus Siculus, Kushite kingErgamenes defied the priests and had them slaughtered. This story may refer to the first ruler to be buried at Meroë with a similar name such asArqamani,[71] who ruled many years after the royal cemetery was opened at Meroë. During this same period, the Kushite authority may have extended some 1,500 km along the Nile River valley from the Egyptian frontier in the north to areas far south of modern Khartoum and probably also substantial territories to the east and west.[72]
There is some record of conflict between the Kushites and Ptolemies. In 275 or 274 BC, Ptolemy II (r. 283–246 BC) sent an army to Nubia, and defeated the Kingdom of Kush, annexing to Egypt the area later known asTriakontaschoinos. In addition, There was a serious revolt at the end of Ptolemy IV, around 204 BC, and the Kushites likely tried to interfere in Ptolemaic affairs.[59]: 67 It has been suggested that this led to Ptolemy V defacing the name of Arqamani on inscriptions at Philae.[59]: 67 "Arqamani constructed a small entrance hall to the temple built by Ptolemy IV at selchis and constructed a temple at Philae to which Ptolemy contributed an entrance hall."[59]: 66 There is evidence of Ptolemaic occupation as far south as the second cataract, but recent finds at Qasr Ibrim, such as "the total absence of Ptolemaic pottery" have cast doubts on the effectiveness of the occupation. Dynastic struggles led to the Ptolemies abandoning the area, so "the Kushites reasserted their control...with Qasr Ibrim occupied" (by the Kushites) and other locations perhaps garrisoned.[59]: 67
According to Welsby, after the Romans assumed control of Egypt, they negotiated with the Kushites at Philae and drew the southern border ofRoman Egypt at Aswan.[59]: 67 Theodor Mommsen and Welsby state the Kingdom of Kush became a client Kingdom, which was similar to the situation under Ptolemaic rule of Egypt. Kushite ambition and excessive Roman taxation are two theories for a revolt that was supported by Kushite armies.[59]: 67–68 The ancient historians, Strabo and Pliny, give accounts of the conflict with Roman Egypt.
Bronzehead of Emperor Augustus found under the staircase of a temple in MeroeMeroitic prince Arikhankharer smiting his enemies, first century AD (Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, MA)
Strabo describes a war with theRomans in the first century BC. According to Strabo, the Kushites "sacked Aswan with an army of 30,000 men and destroyed imperial statues...at Philae." A "fine over-life-sizebronze head of the emperor Augustus" was found buried in Meroe in front of a temple.[59]: 68 After the initial victories ofKandake (or "Candace")Amanirenas against Roman Egypt, the Kushites were defeated andNapata sacked.[73] Remarkably, the destruction of the capital of Napata was not a crippling blow to the Kushites and did not frighten Candace enough to prevent her from again engaging in combat with the Roman military. In 22 BC, a large Kushite force moved northward with intention of attackingQasr Ibrim.[74]: 149 Alerted to the advance,Gaius Petronius, prefect of Roman Egypt, again marched south and managed to reach Qasr Ibrim and bolster its defenses before the invading Kushites arrived. Welsby states after a Kushite attack on Primis (Qasr Ibrim),[59]: 69–70 the Kushites sent ambassadors to negotiate a peace settlement with Petronius. The Kushites succeeded in negotiating a peace treaty on favorable terms.[73] Trade between the two nations increased[74]: 149 and the Roman Egyptian border being extended to "Hiera Sykaminos (Maharraqa)."[59]: 70 This arrangement "guaranteed peace for most of the next 300 years" and there is "no definite evidence of further clashes."[59]: 70
It is possible that the Roman emperorNero planned another attempt to conquer Kush before his death in AD 68.[74]: 150–151 Nero sent twocenturions upriver as far asBahr el Ghazal River in 66 AD in an attempt to discover the source of the Nile, perSeneca,[69]: 43 or plan an attack, perPliny.
Kush began to fade as a power by the first or second century AD, sapped by the war with the Roman province of Egypt and the decline of its traditional industries.[75] However, there is evidence of third century AD Kushite Kings at Philae in demotic and inscription.[59]: 71 It has been suggested that the Kushites reoccupied lower Nubia after Roman forces were withdrawn to Aswan. Kushite activities led others to note "a de facto Kushite control of that area (as far north as Philae) for part of the third century AD.[59]: 71 Thereafter, it weakened and disintegrated due to internal rebellion.[citation needed]
Thestele ofAksumite EmperorEzana commemorating his expedition against the Noba and Kush
The fall of Meroe is often associated with anAksumite invasion.[76] An Aksumite presence in Meroe is confirmed by two fragmentary Greek inscriptions.[77] The better preserved one referred to military actions and the imposition of a tribute.[78] They probably belonged to Aksumite victory monuments and were dedicated toAres/Maher, the god of war.[79] Thus, they must have been erected before Aksum's conversion to Christianity in around 340, perhaps by kingOusanas (r.c. 310–330).[80] An inscription from Aksum mentioning Kush as vassal kingdom may also be attributed to Ousanas.[81] The trilingualstele of his successorEzana describes another expedition which happened after 340.[82] Ezana's army followed the course of the Atbara until reaching the Nile confluence, where he waged war against Kush.[83] Meroe itself is not mentioned, suggesting that Ezana did not attack the town.[84] Aksum's presence in Nubia was likely short-lived.[85]
Meroitic texts from as early as the 1st century BC hint to conflicts with theNoba, who lived west of the Nile and were governed by their own chiefs and kings. Perhaps it was the increasingly arid climate that forced them to attack the Nile Valley, although they would not manage to break through until the 4th century.[86] The Ezana stele mentioned that they had occupied Kushite towns[87] and were active as far east as theTakeze River, where they harassed Aksumite vassals.[88] These attacks and them breaking oaths they had sworn to Ezana were the main reason for his Nubian expedition.[89] It has been proposed that the Noba were not necessarilyNubian-speakers, but that the term "Noba" was rather a pejorative Meroitic word applied to a large variety of people living outside the Meroitic state.[90] A Meroitic stele found atGebel Adda from around 300 AD, however, seems to mention a king bearing the Nubian name Trotihi.[91] A bowl from a 4th-century elite burial inel-Hobagi features a Meroitic-Nubian inscription mentioning a "king", but identifying the interred individual and the polity he ruled over remains problematic.[91][92]
At Meroe, the last pyramids as well as non-royal burials are dated to the mid-4th century,[93] which is conventionally thought to be when the kingdom of Kush came to an end. Afterwards began the so-called "post-Meroitic" period.[94] This period saw a decline of urbanism, the disappearance of the Meroitic religion and script[95] as well as the emergence of regional elites buried in large tumuli.[96] Princely burials fromQustul (c. 380–410) andBallana (410–500) in Lower Nubia are connected to the rise ofNobatia.[97] To its north were theBlemmyes, who in around 394 established akingdom centered around Talmis[98] that lasted until it was conquered by Nobatia in around 450.[99] The political developments south of the third cataract remain obscure,[100] but it appears thatDongola, the later capital ofMakuria as well asSoba, the capital ofAlodia, were founded in that period. Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia eventually converted to Christianity in the 6th century, marking the beginning of medieval Nubia.[101]
TheMeroitic language was spoken in Meroë and Sudan during the Meroitic period (attested from 300 BC). It became extinct around 400 AD. It is uncertain to which language family the Meroitic language belongs. Kirsty Rowan suggests that Meroitic, like theEgyptian language, belongs to theAfro-Asiatic family. She bases this on its sound inventory andphonotactics, which she argues are similar to those of the Afro-Asiatic languages and dissimilar from those of the Nilo-Saharan languages.[102][103]Claude Rilly proposes that Meroitic, like theNobiin language, belongs to theEastern Sudanic branch of theNilo-Saharan family, based in part on its syntax, morphology, and known vocabulary.[104][105][106]
In the Napatan Period Egyptian hieroglyphs were used: at this time writing seems to have been restricted to the court and temples. From the second century BC, there was a separate Meroitic writing system. The language was written in two forms of theMeroitic alphabet: Meroitic Cursive, which was written with astylus and was used for general record-keeping; and Meroitic Hieroglyphic, which was carved in stone or used for royal or religious documents. It is not well understood due to the scarcity ofbilingual texts. The earliest inscription in Meroitic writing dates from between 180 and 170 BC. These hieroglyphics were found engraved on the temple of QueenShanakdakhete. Meroitic Cursive is written horizontally, and reads from right to left.[107] This was an alphabetic script with 23 signs used in a hieroglyphic form (mainly on monumental art) and in a cursive form. The latter was widely used; so far some 1,278 texts using this version are known (Leclant 2000). The script was deciphered by Griffith, but the language behind it is still a problem, with only a few words understood by modern scholars. It is not as yet possible to connect the Meroitic language with other known languages.[57] For a time, it was also possibly used to write theOld Nubian language of the successor Nubian kingdoms.[57]
The natives of the Kingdom of Kush developed a type of water wheel orscoop wheel, thesaqiyah, named kolē by the Kush.[108] The saqiyah was developed during theMeroitic period to improve irrigation. The introduction of this machine had a decisive influence on agriculture especially inDongola as this wheel lifted water 3 to 8 meters with much less expenditure of labor and time than theshaduf, which was the previous chief irrigation device in the kingdom. The shaduf relied on human energy but the saqiyah was driven by buffalos or other animals.[108] The people ofKerma, ancestors to the Kushites, built bronzekilns through which they manufactured objects of daily use such asrazors,mirrors andtweezers.[109]
The Kushites developed a form ofreservoir, known as ahafir, during the Meroitic period. Eight hundred ancient and modern hafirs have been registered in the Meroitic town ofButana.[110]The functions of hafirs were to catch water during the rainy season for storage, to ensure water is available for several months during the dry season as well as supply drinking water, irrigate fields, and water cattle.[110] The Great Hafir, or Great Reservoir, near the Lion Temple inMusawwarat es-Sufra is a notable hafir built by the Kushites.[111] It was built to retain the rainfall of the short, wet season. It is 250 m in diameter and 6.3 m deep.[111][110]
Bloomeries andblast furnaces could have been used in metalworking at Meroë.[112] Early records of bloomery furnaces dated at least to seventh and sixth century BC have been discovered in Kush. The ancient bloomeries that produced metal tools for the Kushites produced a surplus for sale.[113][114][115]
Tetracycline was being used by Nubians, based on bone remains between 350 AD and 550 AD. The antibiotic was in wide commercial use only in the mid 20th century. The theory states that earthen jars containing grain used for making beer contained the bacteriumstreptomyces, which produced tetracycline. Although Nubians were not aware of tetracycline, they could have noticed that people fared better by drinking beer than just consuming the grain itself. According to Charlie Bamforth, a professor of biochemistry and brewing science at the University of California, Davis, "They must have consumed it because it was rather tastier than the grain from which it was derived."[117]
Based on engraved plans of Meroitic KingAmanikhabali's pyramids, Nubians had a sophisticated understanding of mathematics as they appreciated the harmonic ratio. The engraved plans are indicative of much to be revealed about Nubian mathematics.[118] Theancient Nubians also established a system of geometry which they used in creating early versions ofsun clocks.[119][120] During the Meroitic period in Nubian history, the Nubians used a trigonometric methodology similar to the Egyptians.[121]
Relief of a battle scene on templeMeroe 250 (also known as "Sun Temple"), 1st century AD
During the siege ofHermopolis in the eighth century BC,siege towers were built for the Kushite army led byPiye, in order to enhance the efficiency of Kushite archers andslingers.[122]After leaving Thebes, Piye's first objective was besiegingAshmunein. Following his army's lack of success he undertook the personal supervision of operations including the erection of a siege tower from which Kushite archers could fire down into the city.[123]Early shelters protectingsappers armed with poles trying to breach mud-brick ramparts gave way tobattering rams.[122]
Bowmen were the most important force components in the Kushite military.[124] Ancient sources[which?][who?] indicate that Kushite archers favored one-piece bows that were between six and seven feet long, with a draw strength so powerful that many of the archers used their feet to bend their bows. However,composite bows were also used in their arsenal.[124] Greek historianHerodotus indicated that primary bow construction was of seasoned palm wood, with arrows made of cane.[124] Kushite arrows were oftenpoisoned-tipped.
Elephants were occasionally used in warfare during the Meroitic period, as seen in the war against Rome around 20 BC.[125]
Amun temple ofJebel Barkal, originally built during the Egyptian New Kingdom but greatly enhanced by Piye
During theBronze Age,Nubian ancestors of the Kingdom of Kush built speoi (a speos is a temple or tomb cut into a rock face) between 3700 and 3250 BC. This greatly influenced the architecture of theNew Kingdom of Egypt.[127]Tomb monuments were one of the more recognizable expressions of Kushite architecture. Uniquely Kushite tomb monuments were found from the beginning of the empire, at el Kurru, to the decline of the kingdom. These monuments developed organically from Middle Nile (e.g. A-group) burial types. Tombs became progressively larger during the 25th dynasty, culminating in Taharqa's underground rectangular building with "aisles of square piers...the whole being cut from the living rock."[59]: 103 Kushites also created pyramids,[128][129] mud-brick temples (deffufa), and masonry temples.[130][131] Kushites borrowed much from Egypt, as it relates to temple design. Kushite temples were quite diverse in their plans, except for the Amun temples which all have the same basic plan. The Jebel Barkal and Meroe Amun temples are exceptions with the 150 m long Jebel Barkal being "by far the largest 'Egyptian' temple ever built in Nubia."[59]: 118 Temples for major Egyptian deities were built on "a system of internal harmonic proportions" based on "one or more rectangles each with sides in the ratio of 8:5"[59]: 133 [132] Kush also inventedNubian vaults.
The so-called "Roman kiosk" (right) and temple ofApedemak (left),Naqa (1st century AD)
Piye is thought to have constructed the first true pyramid at el Kurru. Pyramids are "the archetypal tomb monument of the Kushite royal family" and found at "el Kurru, Nuri, Jebel Barkal, and Meroe."[59]: 105 The Kushite pyramids are smaller with steeper sides than northern Egyptian pyramids. The Kushites are thought to have copied the pyramids of New Kingdom elites, as opposed to Old and Middle Kingdom pharaohs.[59]: 105–106 Kushite housing consisted mostly of circular timber huts with some apartment houses with several two-room apartments. The apartment houses likely accommodated extended families.[citation needed]
The Kushites built a stone-paved road at Jebel Barkal, are thought to have built piers/harbors on the Nile river, and many wells.[133]
Hieratic papyrus written during the reigns of Taharqa and Shabaqa discussing financial matters, Thebes
Some scholars[who?] believe the economy in the Kingdom of Kush was a redistributive system. The state would collect taxes in the form of surplus produce and would redistribute it to the people. Others believe that most of the society worked on the land and required nothing from the state and did not contribute to the state. Northern Kush seems to have been more productive and wealthier than the Southern area.[134]
On account of the Kingdom of Kush's proximity toAncient Egypt – thefirst cataract atElephantine usually being considered the traditional border between the twopolities – and because the 25th dynasty ruled over both states in the eighth century BC, from the Rift Valley to theTaurus mountains, historians have closely associated the study of Kush with Egyptology, in keeping with the general assumption that the complex sociopolitical development of Egypt's neighbors can be understood in terms of Egyptian models.[citation needed] As a result, the political structure and organization of Kush as an independent ancient state has not received as thorough attention from scholars, and there remains much ambiguity especially surrounding the earliest periods of the state.[citation needed] Edwards has suggested that the study of the region could benefit from increased recognition of Kush as a state in its own right, with distinct cultural conditions, rather than merely as a secondary state on the periphery of Egypt.[135]
^Rilly, Claude (2019)."Languages of Ancient Nubia". In Raue, Dietrich (ed.).Handbook of Ancient Nubia. De Gruyter. pp. 133–4.ISBN978-3-11-041669-5. Retrieved2019-11-20.The Blemmyan language is so close to modern Beja that it is probably nothing else than an early dialect of the same language.
^Morkot, Robert G. "On the Priestly Origin of the Napatan Kings: The Adaptation, Demise, and Resurrection of Ideas in Writing Nubian History" in O'Connor, David and Andrew Reid, eds.Ancient Egypt in Africa (Encounters with Ancient Egypt) (University College London Institute of Archaeology Publications) Left Coast Press (1 Aug 2003)ISBN978-1-59874-205-3 p.151
^abKendall, T.K., 2002. Napatan Temples: a Case Study from Gebel Barkal. The Mythological Nubian Origin of Egyptian Kingship and the Formation of the Napatan State. Tenth International Conference of Nubian Studies. Rome, September 9–14, 2002.
^Rilly, Claude (2016)."Meroitic". In Stauder-Porchet, Julie; Stauder, Andréas; Willeke, Wendrich (eds.).UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. Los Angeles:UCLA.
^Depuydt, Leo (1 January 1998). "Gnomons at Meroë and Early Trigonometry".The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.84:171–180.doi:10.2307/3822211.JSTOR3822211.
^Slayman, Andrew (27 May 1998)."Neolithic Skywatchers".Archaeology Magazine Archive.Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved17 April 2011.
Bianchi, Robert Steven (2004).Daily Life of the Nubians. Greenwood.ISBN978-0-313-32501-4.
Emberling, Geoff (2023). "Kush under the Dynasty of Napata". In Karen Radner; Nadine Moeller; D.T. Potts (eds.).The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East. Vol. 4. Oxford University. pp. 82–160.
Edwards, David N. (2004).The Nubian Past. London: Routledge. pp. 348 Pages.ISBN0-415-36987-8.
Edwards (2011). "From Meroe to 'Nubia' – exploring culture change without the 'Noba'".La Pioche et La Plume (Hommages Archéologiques à Patrice Lenoble). pp. 501–514.
Edwards, David (2013). "Medieval and post-medieval states of the Nile Valley". In Peter Mitchell, Paul Lane (ed.).The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology. Oxford University. pp. 789–798.
Edwards, David (2019). "Post-Meroitic Nubia". In Dietrich Raue (ed.).Handbook of Ancient Nubia. De Gruyter. pp. 943–964.
el-Tayeb, Mahmoud (2020). "Post-Meroe in Upper Nubia".The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia. Oxford University. pp. 731–758.
Fisher, Marjorie M.; Lacovara, Peter;Ikram, Salima; et al., eds. (2012).Ancient Nubia: African Kingdoms on the Nile. The American University in Cairo Press.ISBN978-977-416-478-1.
Hatke, George (2013).Aksum and Nubia. Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa. New York University.
Kendall, T. (1999). "The Origin of the Napatan State: El Kurru and the Evidence of the Royal Ancestors". In Steffen Wenig (ed.).Studien Zum Antiken Sudan Akten Der 7. Internationalen Tagung Für Meroitische Forschungen Vom 14. Bis 19. September 1992 in Gosen/bei Berlin. Harrassowitz. pp. 3–117.
Leclant, Jean (2004).The empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe. London: UNESCO. pp. 1912 Pages.ISBN1-57958-245-1.
Rilly, Claude. "Languages of Ancient Nubia". In Dietrich Raue (ed.).Handbook of Ancient Nubia. De Gruyter. pp. 129–154.
Sakamoto, Tsubasa (2022). "A (Post-)Meroitic chieftain at Jebel Umm Marrihi". In N. Kawai, B.G. Davies (ed.).The Star Who Appears in Thebes. Studies in Honour of Jiro Kondo. Abercromby. pp. 369–382.
Oliver, Roland (1975).The Cambridge History of Africa Volume 3 1050 – c. 1600. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-20981-1.
Oliver, Roland (1978).The Cambridge history of Africa. Vol. 2, From c. 500 BC to AD 1050. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-20981-1.
Shillington, Kevin (2004).Encyclopedia of African History, Vol. 1. London: Routledge. pp. 1912 Pages.ISBN1-57958-245-1.
Török, László (1997). "The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization".Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1 the Near and Middle East. Leiden: Brill.ISBN978-9004104488.
Török, László (2009).Between Two Worlds. The Frontier Region between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC – AD 500. Brill.
Welsby, Derek (1996).The Kingdom of Kush: the Napatan and Meroitic empires. London: Published for the Trustees of the British Museum by British Museum Press.ISBN978-0-7141-0986-2.OCLC34888835.
Williams, Bruce Beyer (2020). "The Napatan Neo-Kushite State 1: The Intermediate Period and Second Empire". In Bruce Beyer Williams (ed.).The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia. Oxford University. pp. 411–422.
Kerma website Official website of the Swiss archeological mission to Sudan.
Josefine Kuckertz:Meroe and Egypt. In Wolfram Grajetzki, Solange Ashby, Willeke Wendrich (eds.):UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. Los Angeles 2021,ISSN2693-7425 (online).
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