HistorianAdolfo Domínguez Monedero [es] argues that the nameIberian was given by Ancient Greeks to two different peoples located at the extremities of their world (in the Iberian Peninsula and the Caucasus) due to the mythical wealth associated with them (Tartessos and theGolden Fleece of Colchis).[18]
According toCyril Toumanoff, theMoschians were an early proto-Georgian tribe that played a leading role in the consolidation of Iberian tribes largely inhabiting eastern and southern Georgia.[19] The Moschians may have moved slowly to the northeast, forming settlements as they traveled.[20] One of these settlements wasMtskheta, the future capital of the Kingdom of Iberia. The Mtskheta tribe was later ruled by a prince locally known asmamasakhlisi ("father of the household" in Georgian).
The written sources for the early periods of Iberia's history are mostly medieval Georgian chronicles, which modern scholarship interprets as semi-legendary narratives.[21] One such chronicle,Moktsevay Kartlisay ("Conversion of Kartli"), relates that a ruler namedAzo and his people came fromArian-Kartli—the initial homeland of the proto-Iberians, which had been underAchaemenid rule until the fall of thePersian Empire—and settled on the site whereMtskheta was later founded. Another Georgian chronicle,Kartlis Tskhovreba ("The Life of Kartli"), presents Azo as an officer ofAlexander's, who massacred a local ruling family and conquered the area, until being defeated at the end of the 4th century BC by PrincePharnavaz, then a local chief.
The story of Alexander's invasion of Kartli, although legendary, nevertheless reflects the establishment of Georgian monarchy in theHellenistic period and the desire of later Georgian literati to associate this event with the renowned conqueror.[22]
A fragment of theFasti Ostienses mentioningPharasmanes II of Iberia.[23]PHARASMAN'[ES REX IBERORVM CVM FILIO] E ET VXORE PHR[CVI IMP(ERATOR) ANTONINVS AVG(VSTVS) REGNVM] REDDIDIT Translation: Pharasman[es, king of the Iberians with his son] and his wife Phr[to whom the emp[eror] Antoninus Aug[ustus] restored the kingdom].
Pharnavaz, victorious in a power struggle, became the firstking of Iberia (c. 302 – c. 237 BC). According to later Georgian chronicles, after repelling an invasion, he subjugated neighboring regions, including a significant part of the western Georgian state of Colchis (locally known asEgrisi), and appears to have secured recognition of the newly founded state by theSeleucids ofSyria. Pharnavaz is also credited with building a major citadel,Armaztsikhe, erecting a temple to the godArmazi, and creating a new administrative system by subdividing the country into counties known assaeristavos.
His successors controlled the mountain passes of theCaucasus, with theDaryal Pass (also known as the Iberian Gates) being the most important.
The period following this prosperity was marked by incessant warfare, as Iberia was forced to defend its territories against numerous invasions. Some southern regions of Iberia, conquered from theKingdom of Armenia in the 2nd century BC, were reunited with Armenia, while Colchian lands seceded to form separate princedoms (sceptuchoi). At the end of the 2nd century BC, thePharnavazid kingPharnajom was dethroned by his subjects after converting to Zoroastrianism, and the crown was given to the Armenian princeArtaxias, who ascended the Iberian throne in 93 BC, establishing theArtaxiad dynasty of Iberia.[24]
This close association with theKingdom of Armenia and theKingdom of Pontus drew Iberia intoa Roman invasion in 65 BC, led by the Roman generalPompey during his war againstMithradates VI of Pontus and Armenia. Rome, however, did not establish permanent control over Iberia. Twenty-nine years later, in 36 BC, Roman forces again marched into Iberia, compelling KingPharnavaz II to participate in their campaign againstAlbania.
While the western Georgian kingdom of Colchis was administered as a Roman province, Iberia accepted Roman imperial protection while retaining a significant degree of autonomy. A stone inscription discovered atMtskheta refers to the 1st-century rulerMithridates I (AD 58–106) as "the friend of the Caesars" and as king "of the Roman-loving Iberians." EmperorVespasian fortified the ancient site of Arzami near Mtskheta for the Iberian kings in AD 75.
During the following two centuries, Roman influence in Iberia remained substantial. By the reign of KingPharsman II (116–132), Iberia had regained much of its former strength. Relations between Pharsman II and the Roman emperorHadrian were reportedly strained, although Hadrian is said to have sought reconciliation. Under Hadrian’s successor,Antoninus Pius, relations improved considerably: Pharsman is reported to have visitedRome, where, according toDio Cassius, a statue was erected in his honor and he was granted the right to offer sacrifices.
This period marked a significant shift in Iberia’s political status. Rome increasingly regarded Iberia as an ally rather than as a subordinate state, a situation that largely persisted even during periods of Roman conflict with theParthians.
From the first centuries of the Christian era, the cults ofMithras andZoroastrianism were widely practiced in Iberia. Archaeological excavations of rich burials at Bori, Armazi, and Zguderi have yielded silver drinking cups bearing images of horses standing before fire altars or raising a foreleg above them.[25] The cult of Mithras, distinguished by its syncretic character and its compatibility with local religious traditions—particularly solar worship withinGeorgian mythology—gradually merged with indigenous beliefs. Some scholars have suggested that Mithras may have served as a precursor to the cult ofSaint George in pre-Christian Georgia.[26]
Over time,Iranian religious concepts and cultural practices increasingly influenced the Iberian court and elite. The Armazian script and language, derived from Aramaic, were adopted for official use, as evidenced by a number of inscriptions dating to the Classical and Hellenistic periods found inColchis.[27] Court ceremonial was modeled on Iranian prototypes, elite dress reflected Iranian styles, and Iranian personal names became common among the Iberian aristocracy.[28] The official cult of the godArmazi was introduced by KingPharnavaz in the 3rd century BC, a development later associated in medieval Georgian chronicles withZoroastrianism.[29]
A decisive turning point in the history of Iberia was the foundation of theSasanian (or Sassanid) Empire in 224 byArdashir I.[30][31] By replacing the weak Parthian realm with a strong, centralized state, this development altered Iberia’s political orientation away from Rome. During the reign ofShapur I (241–272), Iberia became a tributary of the Sasanian Empire. Relations between the two states initially appear to have been amicable, as Iberia cooperated with Persian military campaigns against Rome, and the Iberian kingAmazasp III (260–265) was listed among the high dignitaries of the Sasanian realm rather than as a subdued vassal.
The expansionist tendencies of the Sasanians soon became evident through their promotion ofZoroastrianism, which was likely established in Iberia between the 260s and 290s. However, under the terms of thePeace of Nisibis in 298, the Roman Empire regained control over Caucasian Iberia as a vassal state. Rome acknowledged Iberian authority over much of the Caucasus and recognizedMirian III, the first ruler of the Chosroid dynasty, as king of Iberia.[32]
Adoption of Christianity and Sasanian Persian period
Roman influence proved decisive in religious matters, as KingMirian III and leading nobles converted toChristianity around 319, declaring it thestate religion of Iberia. This event is associated with the mission of aCappadocian woman,Saint Nino, who had been preaching Christianity in the Georgian kingdom since 303.
Golden plate from theAkhalgori Treasure, 4th century BC
Christianity became a strong cultural and political link betweenGeorgia and Rome (laterByzantium), influencing state culture and society. Iranian elements in Georgian art gradually declined with the adoption of Christianity in the fourth century.[33]
Following the death ofJulian the Apostate in 363 during his failed campaign in Persia, Rome ceded control of Iberia to Persia. KingVaraz-Bakur I (Asphagur) (363–365) became a Persian vassal, as confirmed by the Peace ofAcilisene in 387.[34] Later, Pharsman IV (406–409) preserved Iberian autonomy and ceased tribute payments to Persia.[34]
Sasanian rulers established a viceroy (pitiaxae/bidaxae) to oversee their vassal, eventually making the office hereditary in the ruling house ofLower Kartli, creating the Kartlipitiaxate and bringing significant territory under Persian influence.[34] Despite remaining part of the kingdom of Kartli, the viceroys became centers of Persian authority.[34] Sasanian policy challenged Iberian Christianity, promotingZoroaster’s teachings. By the mid-5th century,Zoroastrianism was a second official religion in eastern Georgia alongside Christianity.[35]
The early reign ofVakhtang I, known asGorgasali (447–502), marked a revival of the kingdom. Formally a Persian vassal, he secured northern borders, subjugated Caucasian mountaineers, and brought adjacent western and southern Georgian territories under his control. He established anautocephalic patriarchate atMtskheta and madeTbilisi his capital. In 482, he led a general uprising against Persia, initiating a twenty-year struggle for independence. Lacking Byzantine support, he was eventually defeated and died in battle in 502.[36]
The continuing rivalry betweenByzantium andSasanian Persia for supremacy in theCaucasus had severe consequences for Iberia. The unsuccessful uprising of 523, led by the Georgians underGurgen, weakened the kingdom. Thereafter, the Iberian king retained only nominal authority, while real power was exercised by the Persians. In 580,Hormizd IV (578–590) abolished the monarchy following the death ofKing Bacurius III, converting Iberia into a Persian province administered by amarzpan (governor). Georgian nobles appealed to the Byzantine emperorMaurice to restore the kingdom in 582, but in 591 Byzantium and Persia agreed to divide Iberia:Tbilisi remained under Persian control, whileMtskheta came under Byzantine administration.[37]
At the beginning of the 7th century, the truce between Byzantium and Persia collapsed. The Iberian princeStephen I (c. 590–627) allied with Persia in 607 to reunite Iberian territories, a goal he largely achieved. However, EmperorHeraclius’s campaigns in 627–628 defeated both the Georgians and Persians, establishing Byzantine predominance in western and easternGeorgia until theArab invasion.[38]
TheArabs reached Iberia around 645 and compelled itseristavi (prince),Stephen II (r. 637–650), to abandon allegiance toByzantium and recognize theCaliph as suzerain. Iberia became a tributary state, and an Arabemir was installed inTbilisi circa 653.
By the early 9th century,Ashot I (r. 813–830) of the newBagrationi dynasty, based in southwestern Georgia, took advantage of the weakening of Arab control to establish himself as hereditary prince of Iberia, holding the Byzantine titlekouropalates. His successor,Adarnase IV of Iberia, formally a vassal of Byzantium, was crowned "king of Iberia" in 888. His descendant,Bagrat III (r. 975–1014), united the various principalities to form a consolidatedGeorgian monarchy.[39]
The similarity of the name with the old inhabitants of theIberian peninsula, the 'Western'Iberians, has led to an idea of ethnogenetical kinship between them and the people of Caucasian Iberia (called the 'Eastern' Iberians).
It has been advocated by various ancient and medieval authors, although they differed in approach to the problem of the initial place of their origin. The theory seems to have been popular in medievalGeorgia. The prominent Georgian religious writerGeorge the Hagiorite (1009–1065) wrote about the wish of certain Georgian nobles to travel to the Iberian peninsula and visit the localGeorgians of the West, as he called them.[40]
^Javakhishvili, Ivane (1982).ქართველი ერის ისტორია [A History of the Georgian Nation] (in Georgian). Vol. 1. Tbilisi State University Press. p. 51.
^Georgian Soviet Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. 1979. pp. 537–538.
^abRapp, Stephen H. Jr. (2007). "Georgian Christianity".The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. p. 138.ISBN978-1-4443-3361-9.
^Toumanoff, Cyril (1963). "Iberia between Chosroid and Bagratid Rule".Studies in Christian Caucasian History. Georgetown University Press. pp. 374–377.
^Toumanoff, Cyril (1967).Studies in Christian Caucasian History. Georgetown University Press. p. 80.
^Georgian Soviet Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. 1984. p. 146.
^Rapp, Stephen H. (2003).Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts and Eurasian Contexts. Vol. 601. Peeters Publishers. p. 275.ISBN90-429-1318-5.While P'arnavaz may in fact be a fabrication, it is more feasible that over time the memory of the historical P'arnavaz accumulated a legendary facade.
^Rapp, Stephen H. (2003),Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts and Eurasian Contexts, pp. 141–142. Peeters Publishers,ISBN90-429-1318-5.
^Bernhard Brehmer, "Fasti Ostienses",Brill’s New Pauly, 2006, p. 154.
^Mariam Lortkipanidze, Roin Metreveli,Kings of Georgia, Tbilisi, 2007, p. 41ISBN99928-58-36-2
^David Muskhelishvili (2003).Georgia in the 4th–8th cent, Matiane, Tbilisi, p. 246.
^Abashidze, Z.; Bakhtadze, M.; Janelidze, O. (2013).Georgia and the Georgians. Tbilisi. p. 97.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Javakhishvili, Ivane (1983).A History of the Georgian Nation. Tbilisi: Georgia. p. 121.
^Metreveli, Saba.Encyclopedic Dictionary of Georgian Hagiography (4th–10th cc.). Tbilisi, 2023, p. 276.
Braund, David.Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC-AD 562 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994)ISBN0-19-814473-3
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