Beginning in the year 886[4]Alfred the Great reoccupiedLondon from the DanishVikings and after this event he declared himselfKing of the Anglo-Saxons, until his death in 899. During the early tenth century, the variousAnglo-Saxon kingdoms were united by Alfred's descendantsEdward the Elder (reigned 899–924) andÆthelstan (reigned 924–939) to form the Kingdom of the English. In 927, Æthelstan conquered the last remaining Viking kingdom,York, making him the first Anglo-Saxon ruler of the whole of England. In 1016, the kingdom became part of theNorth Sea Empire ofCnut the Great, apersonal union between England,Denmark andNorway. TheNorman Conquest in 1066 led to the transfer of the English capital city and chief royal residence from the Anglo-Saxon one atWinchester toWestminster, and theCity of London quickly established itself as England's largest and principal commercial centre.[6]
Histories of the Kingdom of England from the Norman Conquest of 1066 conventionally distinguish periods named after successive ruling dynasties:Norman/Angevin 1066–1216,Plantagenet 1216–1485,Tudor 1485–1603 andStuart 1603–1707 (interrupted by theInterregnum of 1649–1660).All English monarchs after 1066 ultimately descend from theNormans, and the distinction of the Plantagenets is conventional—beginning withHenry II (reigned 1154–1189) as from that time, theAngevin kings became "more English in nature"; the houses ofLancaster andYork are both Plantagenet cadet branches, the Tudor dynasty claimed descent fromEdward III viaJohn Beaufort andJames VI and I of theHouse of Stuart claimed descent fromHenry VII viaMargaret Tudor.
The accession ofJames VI and I in 1603 resulted in theUnion of the Crowns, with theStuart dynasty ruling the kingdoms of England,Scotland andIreland. Under the Stuarts, England plunged intocivil war, which culminated in theexecution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament. This concept became legally established as part of theGlorious Revolution of 1688.From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its successor state the United Kingdom, functioned in effect as aconstitutional monarchy.[a] On 1 May 1707, under the terms of theActs of Union 1707, the parliaments, and therefore Kingdoms, of both England and Scotland were mutually abolished. Their assets and estates united 'for ever, into the Kingdom by the name of Great Britain', forming theKingdom of Great Britain and theParliament of Great Britain.[7][8]
TheAnglo-Saxons referred to themselves as theEngle or theAngelcynn, originally names of theAngles. They called their landEngla land, meaning "land of the English", byÆthelweard LatinizedAnglia, from an originalAnglia vetus, the purported homeland of the Angles (calledAngulus byBede).[9] The nameEngla land becameEngland byhaplology during theMiddle English period (Engle-land,Engelond).[10][page needed] TheLatin name wasAnglia orAnglorum terra, theOld French andAnglo-Norman oneEngleterre.[11]
The standard title for monarchs fromÆthelstan untilJohn wasRex Anglorum ("King of the English").Cnut, a Dane, was the first to call himself "King of England". During theNorman periodRex Anglorum remained standard, with occasional use ofRex Anglie ("King of England"). From John's reign onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour ofRex orRegina Anglie. In 1604James I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, adopted the title (now usually rendered in English rather than Latin)King of Great Britain.[b]
Southern Britain in AD 600 after the Anglo-Saxon settlement, showing England's division into multiplepetty kingdoms
The Kingdom of England emerged from the gradual unification of the early medievalAnglo-Saxon kingdoms known as theHeptarchy:East Anglia,Mercia,Northumbria,Kent,Essex,Sussex, andWessex. TheViking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general. The English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by 927.[5]
During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged asBretwalda, ahigh king over the other kings. The decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful, absorbing the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825. Thekings of Wessex increasingly dominated the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted toEgbert of Wessex atDore, briefly making Egbert the first king to reign over a united England.[13]
In 886,Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. TheAnglo-Saxon Chronicle says that "all of the English people (all Angelcyn) notsubject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred."[14] Asser added that "Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored thecity of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more."[15] Alfred's restoration entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, buildingquays along theThames, and laying a new city street plan.[16][page needed]
On 12 July 927 the monarchs of Britain gathered atEamont in Cumbria to recognise Æthelstan as king of the English.[5] The title "King of the English" orRex Anglorum in Latin, was first used to describe Æthelstan inone of his charters in 928. The standard title for monarchs from Æthelstan untilJohn was "King of the English". During the following years Northumbria repeatedly changed hands between the English kings and the Norwegian invaders, but was definitively brought under English control byEadred in 954, completing the unification of England.[17] In 1018,Lothian, a portion of the northern half of NorthumbriaBernicia was ceded to theKingdom of Scotland.[18][19]
England has remained in political unity ever since. During the reign ofÆthelred the Unready (978–1016), a new wave of Danish invasions was orchestrated bySweyn I of Denmark, culminating after a quarter-century of warfare in the Danish conquest of England in 1013. But Sweyn died on 2 February 1014, and Æthelred was restored to the throne. In 1015, Sweyn's sonCnut (commonly known as Canute) launched a new invasion. The ensuing war ended with an agreement in 1016 between Canute and Æthelred's successor,Edmund Ironside, to divide England between them, but Edmund's death on 30 November of that year left England united under Danish rule. This continued for 26 years until the death ofHarthacnut in June 1042. He was the son of Canute andEmma of Normandy (the widow of Æthelred the Unready) and had no heirs of his own; he was succeeded by his half-brother, Æthelred's son,Edward the Confessor.[20]
The peace lasted until the death of the childless Edward in January 1066. His brother-in-law was crownedKing Harold, but his cousinWilliam the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, immediately claimed the throne for himself. William launched an invasion of England and landed inSussex on 28 September 1066. Harold and his army were inYork following their victory against the Norwegians at theBattle of Stamford Bridge (25 September 1066) when the news reached him. He decided to set out without delay and confront the Norman army in Sussex so marched southwards at once, despite the army not being properly rested following the battle with the Norwegians. The armies of Harold and William faced each other at theBattle of Hastings (14 October 1066), in which the English army, orFyrd, was defeated, Harold and his two brothers were slain, and William emerged as victor. William was then able to conquer England with little further opposition. He was not, however, planning to absorb the Kingdom into theDuchy of Normandy. As a mere duke, William owed allegiance toPhilip I of France, whereas in the independent Kingdom of England he could rule without interference. He was crowned on 25 December 1066 inWestminster Abbey, London.[21]
In 1092,William II led an invasion ofStrathclyde, aCeltic kingdom in what is now southwest Scotland and Cumbria. In doing so, he annexed what is now the county ofCumbria to England. In 1124,Henry I ceded what is now southeast Scotland (calledLothian) to theKingdom of Scotland, in return for the King of Scotland's loyalty. This final cession established what would become the traditionalborders of England which have remained largely unchanged since then (except for occasional and temporary changes). This area of land had previously been a part of the AnglianKingdom of Northumbria. Lothian contained what later became the Scottish capital,Edinburgh. This arrangement was later finalized in 1237 by theTreaty of York.[22]
King John signsMagna Carta atRunnymede in 1215, surrounded by his baronage. Illustration fromCassell's History of England, 1902.
TheAnglo-Norman invasion of Ireland took place during the late 12th century, whenAnglo-Normans gradually conquered and acquired large swathes of land from the Irish, over which England then claimed sovereignty, all allegedly sanctioned by the Papal bullLaudabiliter.[23] At the time,Gaelic Ireland was made up of several kingdoms, with aHigh King claiming lordship over most of the other kings.[24]
Up until the Norman Conquest of England, Wales had remained for the most part independent of theAnglo-Saxon kingdoms, although some Welsh kings did sometimes acknowledge theBretwalda. Soon after theNorman Conquest of England, however, some Norman lords began to attack Wales. They conquered and ruled parts of it, acknowledging the overlordship of the Norman kings of England but with considerable local independence. Over many years these "Marcher Lords" conquered more and more of Wales, against considerable resistance led by various Welsh princes, who also often acknowledged the overlordship of the Norman kings of England.[26][page needed]
Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the English victory over France at theBattle of Agincourt
Edward III was the first English king to have aclaim to the throne of France. His pursuit of the claim resulted in theHundred Years' War (1337–1453), which pitted five kings of England of theHouse of Plantagenet against five kings of France of theCapetian House of Valois. Extensive naval raiding was carried out by all sides during the war, often involvingprivateers such as John Hawley of Dartmouth or the CastilianPero Niño. Though the English won numerous victories, they were unable to overcome the numerical superiority of the French and their strategic use of gunpowder weapons. England was defeated at theBattle of Formigny in 1450 and finally at theBattle of Castillon in 1453, retaining only a single town in France,Calais.[28]
During the Hundred Years' War anEnglish identity began to develop in place of the previous division between the Norman lords and theirAnglo-Saxon subjects. This was a consequence of sustained hostility to the increasingly nationalist French, whose kings and other leaders (notably the charismaticJoan of Arc) used a developing sense of French identity to help draw people to their cause.[29]
The kingdom had little time to recover before entering theWars of the Roses (1455–1487), a series of civil wars over possession of the throne between theHouse of Lancaster (whose heraldic symbol was the red rose) and theHouse of York (whose symbol was the white rose), each led by different branches of the descendants of Edward III. The end of these wars found the throne held by the descendant of an initially illegitimate member of the House of Lancaster, married to the eldest daughter of the House of York:Henry VII andElizabeth of York.[30]
Wales retained a separate legal and administrative system, which had been established byEdward I in the late 13th century. The country was divided between theMarcher Lords, who gave feudal allegiance to the crown, and thePrincipality of Wales. Under the Tudor monarchy,Henry VIII replaced the laws of Wales with those of England (under theLaws in Wales Acts 1535–1542). Wales was incorporated into England, and henceforth was represented inthe Parliament.[31]
Portrait of Elizabeth I made to commemorate the defeat of theSpanish Armada (1588), depicted in the background. Elizabeth's international power is symbolised by the hand resting on the globe.
During the 1530s, Henry overthrew the power of the Catholic Church within the kingdom,replacing the pope as head of his own English Church and seizing the Catholic Church's lands, thereby facilitating the creation of avariation of Catholicism that became more Protestant over time. This aligned England with Scotland, which also gradually adopted a Protestant religion, whereas the most important continental powers, France andSpain, remained Catholic.[32]
Calais, the last remaining continental possession of the Kingdom, was lost in 1558, during the reign ofPhilip andMary I. Their successor,Elizabeth I, consolidated the new and increasingly ProtestantChurch of England. She also began to build up the kingdom'snaval strength, on the foundations Henry VIII had laid down. By 1588, her new navy was strong enough to defeat theSpanish Armada, which had sought to invade England to halt English support for theDutch rebels and to put a Catholic monarch on the throne in her place.[34][35][36]
The House of Tudor ended with the death of Elizabeth I on 24 March 1603.James I ascended the throne of England and brought it into personal union with the Kingdom of Scotland. Despite theUnion of the Crowns, the kingdoms remained separate and independent states: a state of affairs which lasted for more than a century.[37]
The Stuart kings overestimated the power of the English monarchy, and were cast down by Parliament in 1645 and 1688. In the first instance,Charles I's introduction of new forms of taxation in defiance of Parliament led to theEnglish Civil War (1641–1645), in which the king was defeated, and to the abolition of the monarchy underOliver Cromwell during theInterregnum of 1649–1660.[38]
After thetrial andexecution of Charles I in January 1649, theRump Parliament passed anact declaring England to be a Commonwealth on 19 May 1649. The monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished, and so the House of Commons became a unitary legislative chamber with a new body, theCouncil of State becoming the executive. However the Army remained the dominant institution in the new republic and the most prominent general wasOliver Cromwell. The Commonwealth foughtwars in Ireland andScotland which were subdued and placed under Commonwealth military occupation.[39]
Meanwhile, relations with theDutch Republic had deteriorated. Despite initial English support during the Dutch War of Independence against the Spanish, tensions arose as the Dutch Republic emerged as England's principal commercial and naval rival. By the mid-17th century, it had become the foremost trading nation. In response the English, alarmed by their waning competitiveness, implemented stricter trading policies to curb Dutch dominance. TheFirst Anglo-Dutch War which followed, however, failed to resolve the commercial issues.[40][41]
In April 1653 Cromwell and the otherGrandees of theNew Model Army, frustrated with the members of theRump Parliament who would not pass legislation to dissolve the Rump and to allow a new more representative parliament to be elected, stopped the Rump's session and declared the Rump dissolved.[42]
After an experiment with a Nominated Assembly (Barebone's Parliament), the Grandees in the Army, through the Council of State imposed a new constitutional arrangement under a written constitution called theInstrument of Government. Under the Instrument of Government executive power lay with aLord Protector (an office to be held for the life of the incumbent) and there were to be triennial Parliaments, with each sitting for at least five months. Article 23 of the Instrument of Government stated that Oliver Cromwell was to be the first Lord Protector. TheInstrument of Government was replaced by a second constitution (theHumble Petition and Advice) under which the Lord Protector could nominate his successor. Cromwell nominated his sonRichard who became Lord Protector on the death of Oliver on 3 September 1658.[43]
Charles sailed from his exile in the Netherlands to his restoration in England in May 1660. Painting byLieve Verschuier.
Richard proved to be ineffectual and was unable to maintain his rule. He resigned his title and retired into obscurity. The Rump Parliament was recalled and there was a second period where the executive power lay with the Council of state. But this restoration of Commonwealth rule, similar to that before the Protectorate, proved to be unstable, and the exiled claimant,Charles II, wasrestored to the throne in 1660.[44]
In 1665 the unresolved commercial issues with the Dutch led to theSecond Anglo-Dutch War, which culminated in the disastrousRaid on the Medway and forced the humiliated Charles in to anunfavourable peace treaty. The treaty eliminated a number of long-standing issues, and in the long-term made it possible for the two countries to unite against the expansionist policies pursued byLouis XIV of France. In the short-term however, Charles' desire to avenge this setback led to theThird Anglo-Dutch War in 1672. Despite attaining French support this time, Dutch naval successes made Parliament unwilling to support Charles' war effort any further, and he was again forced to make peace.[45]
Following the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, an attempt byJames II to reintroduce Roman Catholicism—a century after its suppression by the Tudors—led to theGlorious Revolution of 1688, in which he was exiled by the Dutch princeWilliam of Orange. William and his wifeMary were subsequently crowned by Parliament.[46] William reoriented England's foreign policy to support the Dutch Republic in its wars against Louis XIV of France.[c][47]
In the Scottish case, the attractions were partly financial and partly to do with removing English trade sanctions put in place through theAlien Act 1705. The English were more anxious about the royal succession. The death ofWilliam III in 1702 had led to the accession of his sister-in-lawAnne to the thrones of England and Scotland, but her only surviving child had died in 1700, and the EnglishAct of Settlement 1701 had given the succession to the English crown to the ProtestantHouse of Hanover. Securing the same succession in Scotland became the primary object of English strategic thinking towards Scotland. By 1704, theUnion of the Crowns was in crisis, with the ScottishAct of Security allowing for the Scottish Parliament to choose a different monarch, which could in turn lead to an independent foreign policy during a major European war.[48]
ATreaty of Union was agreed on 22 July 1706, and following theActs of Union of 1707, which created theKingdom of Great Britain, the independence of the kingdoms of England and Scotland came to an end on 1 May 1707. The Acts of Union created acustoms union andmonetary union and provided that any "laws and statutes" that were "contrary to or inconsistent with the terms" of the Acts would "cease and become void".[49]
The English and Scottish Parliaments were merged into theParliament of Great Britain, located inWestminster, London. At this point England ceased to exist as a separate political entity, and since then has had no nationalgovernment. The laws of England were unaffected, with the legal jurisdiction continuing to be that ofEngland and Wales, while Scotland continued to have its own laws and law courts. This continued after the1801 union between the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, forming theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 theIrish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter beingrenamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.[50]
Unlike the partly self-governingboroughs that covered urban areas, the counties of medieval England existed primarily as a means of enforcing central government power, enabling monarchs to exercise control over local areas through their chosen representatives – originallysheriffs and later thelord-lieutenants – and their subordinatejustices of the peace.[53]Counties were used initially for theadministration of justice, collection of taxes and organisation of the military, and later for local government and electing parliamentary representation.[54][page needed]Some outlying counties were from time to time accordedpalatine status with some military and central government functions vested in a local noble or bishop. The last such, theCounty Palatine of Durham, did not lose this special status until the 19th century.[55][page needed]
Although all of England was divided into shires by the time of the Norman Conquest, some counties were formed considerably later, up to the 16th century. Because of their differing origins the countiesvaried considerably in size. The county boundaries were fairly static between the 16th centuryLaws in Wales acts and theLocal Government Act 1888.[56] Each shire was responsible for gathering taxes for the central government; for local defence; and for justice, throughassize courts.[57][page needed]
The power of thefeudal barons to control their landholding was considerably weakened in 1290 by the statute ofQuia Emptores. Feudal baronies became perhaps obsolete (but not extinct) on the abolition of feudal tenure during theCivil War, as confirmed by theTenures Abolition Act 1660 passed under theRestoration which took away knight-service and other legal rights.Tenure byknight-service was abolished and discharged and the lands covered by such tenures, including once-feudal baronies, were henceforth held bysocage (i.e., in exchange for monetary rents).The EnglishFitzwalter Case in 1670 ruled that barony by tenure had been discontinued for many years and any claims to apeerage on such basis, meaning a right to sit in theHouse of Lords, were not to be revived, nor any right of succession based on them.[58]
At the same time the Council of Wales was created in 1472, aCouncil of the North was set up for thenorthern counties of England. After falling into disuse, it was re-established in 1537 and abolished in 1641. A very short-livedCouncil of the West also existed for theWest Country between 1537 and 1540.[60]
In the Anglo-Saxon period, thegeld or property tax was first levied in response to Danish invasions but later became a regular tax. The majority of the king's income derived from theroyal demesne and the annual "farm" from each shire (the fixed sum paid by sheriffs for the privilege of administering and profiting from royal lands). Kings also made income from judicial fines and regulation of trade.[61] People owed the king service in the form of thetrinoda necessitas—fyrd service,burh building, and bridge building.[62]
After the Conquest of 1066, the Normans continued collecting the geld regularly. They also introduced new sources of revenue based on concepts offeudalism. The king was entitled to collect afeudal aid when his eldest son was knighted, his eldest daughter married, or if the king needed to pay his own ransom. The heir to afief was also required to pay the king afeudal relief before he could take possession of his inheritance. The king was also entitled to his vassals military service, but vassals could payscutage instead.[63]
In the Anglo-Saxon period, England had no standing army. The king and magnates retained professional household troops (seehousecarl), and all free men were obligated to perform military service in thefyrd. In addition, holders ofbookland were obligated to provide a certain number of men based on the number ofhides they owned.[64]
After the Norman Conquest, the king's household troops remained central to any royal army. The Anglo-Saxon fyrd also remained in use. But the Normans also introduced a new feudal element to the English military. The king'stenants-in-chief (hisfeudal barons) were obligated to provide mounted knights for service in the royal army or to garrisonroyal castles. The total number of knights owed was called theservitium debitum (Latin: "service owed"), and historian Richard Huscroft estimates this number was around 5,000. In reality, theservitium debitum was greater than any king would actually need in wartime. Its main purpose was for assessing how much scutage the king was owed. Scutage was used to pay formercenaries, which were an important part of any Norman army.[65]
^English and Scot, James insisted, should "join and coalesce together in a sincere and perfect union, as two twins bred in one belly, to love one another as no more two but one estate".[12]
^London, 800–1216: The Shaping of a City, "...rivalry between City and government, between a commercial capital in the City and the political capital of quite a different empire in Westminster.", accessed November 2013.
^The Anglo-Saxon ChronicleArchived 1 July 2018 at theWayback Machine Freely licensed version at Gutenberg Project. Note: This electronic edition is a collation of material from nine diverse extant versions of the Chronicle. It contains primarily the translation of Rev. James Ingram, as published in the Everyman edition.
^Asser'sLife of King Alfred, ch. 83, trans. Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge,Alfred the Great: Asser's Life of King Alfred & Other Contemporary Sources (Penguin Classics) (1984), pp. 97–98.
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