TheAsturian kings would occasionally make peace with the Muslims, particularly at times when they needed to pursue their other enemies, mainly rebelBasques andGalicians. ThusFruela I (r. 757–768) fought Muslims but also defeated the Basques and Galicians,[6] andSilo (r. 774–783) made peace with the Muslims but not with the Galicians. Under KingAlfonso II (r. 791–842), the kingdom was firmly established with Alfonso's recognition as king of Asturias byCharlemagne and thePope. He conqueredGalicia and the Basques. During his reign, theholy bones of StJames the Great were declared to be found in Galicia, in Compostela. Pilgrims from all over Europe opened a way of communication between the isolated Asturias and theCarolingian lands and beyond. Alfonso's policy consisted in depopulating the borders ofBardulia (which would turn intoCastile) in order to gain population support north of the mountains. With this growth came a corresponding increase in military forces. The kingdom was now strong enough to sack the Muslim cities ofLisbon,Zamora andCoimbra. However, for centuries to come the focus of these actions was not conquest but pillage and tribute. In the summers of 792, 793 and 794 several Muslim attacks plunderedAlava and the heart of the Asturian kingdom, reaching up to the capital,Oviedo. In one of the retreats, Alfonso inflicted asevere defeat on the Muslims in the swampy area of Lutos.[7]
When Alfonso II died,Ramiro I (842–850) staged a coup against the Count of the PalaceNepotian, who had taken the throne. After a battle on a bridge over theriver Narcea, Nepotian was captured in flight, blinded and then forced into monastic life. Early in his reign, in 844, Ramiro was faced with aViking attack at a place calledFarum Brecantium, believed to be present-dayCorunna. He gathered an army in Galicia and Asturias and defeated the Vikings, killing many of them and burning their ships.[8][9] In 859, a second Viking fleet set out for Spain. The Vikings were slaughtered off the coast of Galicia by Count Pedro.[10] The considerable territorial expansion of the Asturian kingdom underAlfonso III (866–910) was largely made possible by the collapse of Umayyad control over many parts ofAl-Andalus at this time. In 773[11] the western frontier of the kingdom in Galicia was expanded into the northern part of modern-dayPortugal, pushing the border roughly to theDouro valley, and between 868 and 881 it expanded further south reaching all the way to theMondego. The year 878 saw a Muslim assault on the towns ofAstorga andLeón. The expedition consisted of two detachments, one of which was decisively defeated atPolvoraria on the riverÓrbigo, with an alleged loss of 13,000 men. In 881, Alfonso took the offensive, leading an army deep into the Lower March, crossing theTagus River to approachMérida. Then miles from the city the Asturian army crossed the Guadiana River and defeated the Umayyad army on "Monte Oxifer", allegedly leaving 15,000 Muslim soldiers killed. Returning home, Alfonso devoted himself to building the churches of Oviedo and constructing one or two more palaces for himself.
The kingdom originated in the western and central territory of theCantabrian Mountains, particularly thePicos de Europa and the central area of Asturias. The main political and military events during the first decades of the kingdom's existence took place in the region. According to the descriptions ofStrabo,Cassius Dio and other Graeco-Roman geographers, several peoples ofCeltic origin inhabited the lands of Asturias at the beginning of the Christian era, most notably:
in theCantabri, theVadinienses, who inhabited the Picos de Europa region and whose settlement gradually expanded southward during the first centuries of the modern era
theOrgenomesci, who dwelled along the Asturian eastern coast
in theAstures, theSaelini, whose settlement extended through theSella Valley
theLuggones, who had their capital inLucus Asturum and whose territories stretched between the Sella and Nalón
theAstures (in the strictest sense), who dwelled in inner Asturias, between the current councils ofPiloña andCangas del Narcea
thePaesici, who had settled along the coast of Western Asturias, between the mouth of the Navia river and the modern city ofGijón
Picture ofḷḷagu del Vaḷḷe (Somiedo), showing typical Asturian cottages (calledteitos), as already in use in the time of theAstures
Classical geographers give conflicting views of the ethnic description of the above-mentioned peoples.Ptolemy says that the Astures extended along the central area of current Asturias, between the Navia and Sella rivers, fixing the latter river as the boundary with the Cantabrian territory. However, other geographers placed the frontier between the Astures and the Cantabri further to the east:Julius Honorius stated in hisCosmographia that the springs of the riverEbro were located in the land of the Astures (sub asturibus). In any case, ethnic borders in theCantabrian Mountains were not so important after that time, as the clan divisions that permeated the pre-Roman societies of all the peoples of Northern Iberia faded under similar political administrative culture imposed on them by the Romans.
The situation started to change during the LateRoman Empire and the earlyMiddle Ages, when an Asturian identity gradually started to develop: the centuries-old fight betweenVisigothic andSuebian nobles may have helped to forge a distinct identity among the peoples of the Cantabrian districts. Several archaeological digs in thecastro of La Carisa (municipality of Lena) have found remnants of a defensive line whose main purpose was to protect the valleys of central Asturias from invaders who came fromthe Meseta through the Pajares pass: the construction of these fortifications reveals a high degree of organization and cooperation among the several Asturian communities, in order to defend themselves from the southern invaders.Carbon-14 tests have found that the wall dates from the period 675–725 AD, when two armed expeditions against the Asturians took place: one of them headed by Visigothic kingWamba (reigned 672–680); the other by Muslim governorMusa bin Nusayr during the Umayyad conquest, who settled garrisons over its territory.
The gradual formation of Asturian identity led to the creation of the Kingdom of Asturias after Pelagius' coronation and the victory over the Muslim garrisons inCovadonga in the early 8th century. TheChronica Albeldense, in narrating the happenings of Covadonga, stated that "Divine providence brings forth the King of Asturias".
The kingdom was established by the nobleman Pelayo (Latin:Pelagius), possibly an Asturian noble. No substantial movement of refugees from central Iberia could have taken place before theBattle of Covadonga, and in 714 Asturias was overrun by Musa bin Nusayr with no effective or known opposition.[13] It has also been claimed that he may have retired to the Asturian mountains after theBattle of Guadalete, where in the Gothic tradition ofTheias he was elected by the other nobles as leader of theAstures. Pelayo's kingdom was initially a rallying banner for existing guerilla forces.[14][15]
In the progress of the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the main cities and administrative centers fell into the hands of Muslim troops. Control of the central and southern regions, such as theGuadalquivir andEbro valleys, presented few problems for the newcomers, who used the existing Visigothic administrative structures, ultimately of Roman origin. However, in the northern mountains, urban centers (such asGijón) were practically nonexistent and the submission of the mountainous country had to be achieved valley by valley. Muslim troops often resorted to the taking of hostages to ensure the pacification of the newly conquered territory.[citation needed]
After the first incursion ofTarik, who reached Toledo in 711, the Yemeni viceroy ofIfriqiya,Musa bin Nusayr, crossed theStrait of Gibraltar the following year and carried out a massive operation of conquest that would lead to the capture of Mérida, Toledo, Zaragoza and Lerida, among other cities. During the last phase of his military campaign, he reached the northwest of the Peninsula, where he gained control of the localities ofAstorga andGijón. In the latter city, he placed a small Berber detachment under a governor,Munuza, whose mission was to consolidate Muslim control over Asturias. As a guarantee of the submission of the region, some nobles – some[who?] argue that Pelayo was among them – had to surrender hostages from Asturias to Cordoba. The legend says that his sister was asked for, and a marriage alliance sought with the local Berber leader. Later on, Munuza would try to do the same at another mountain post in the Pyrenees, where he rebelled against his Cordoban Arab superiors. TheBerbers had been converted to Islam barely a generation earlier, and were considered second rank to Arabs and Syrians.[citation needed]
The most commonly accepted hypothesis for the battle (epic as described by later Christian Asturian sources, but a mere skirmish in Muslim texts) is that the Moorish column was attacked from the cliffs and then fell back through the valleys towards present day Gijón, but it was attacked in retreat by the retinue and nearly destroyed. However, the only near-contemporary account of the events of the time, the ChristianChronicle of 754, makes no mention of the incident.
However, as is told in theRotensian Chronicle[16] as well as in that ofAhmed Mohammed al-Maqqari,[17] Pelayo escaped from Cordoba during the governorship ofal-Hurr (717–718) and his return to Asturias triggered a revolt against the Muslim authorities of Gijón. The identity of Pelayo, however, is still an open subject, and that is only one of the theories. The leader of the Astures, whose origin is debated by historians, lived at that time in Bres, in the district ofPiloña, and Munuza sent his troops there under al-Qama. After receiving word of the arrival of the Muslims, Pelayo and his companions hurriedly crossed thePiloña and headed toward the narrow, easily defended valley of Mt. Auseva, taking refuge in one of its caves,Covadonga. After an attempted siege was abandoned due to the weather and the exposed position of the deep valley gorge, the troops are said to have exited through the high ports to the south, in order to continue their search-and-destroy mission against other rebels. There, the locals were able to ambush the Muslim detachment, which was nearly annihilated. The few survivors continued south to the plains ofLeon, leaving the maritime districts of Asturias exposed.
The victory, relatively small, as only a few Berber soldiers were involved, resulted in great prestige for Pelayo and provoked a massive insurrection by other nobles inGalicia andAsturias who immediately rallied around him, electing him King or militaryDux.
Under Pelayo's leadership, the attacks on theBerbers increased. Munuza, feeling isolated in a region increasingly hostile, decided to abandon Gijón and headed for the Plateau (Meseta) through the Mesa Trail.[citation needed] However, he was intercepted and killed by Astures at Olalíes (in the current district ofGrado). Once he had expelled the Moors from the eastern valleys of Asturias, Pelayo attackedLeón, the main city in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, and secured the mountain passes, insulating the region from Moorish attack.[citation needed] Pelayo continued attacking those Berbers who remained north of the Asturian Mountains until they withdrew, but the latter mostly deserted their garrisons in response to the wider rebellion against Arab control from Cordoba. He then married his daughter, Ermesinda, to Alfonso, the son of Peter of Cantabria, the leading noble at the still-independent Visigothic duchy ofCantabria. His son Favila was married to Froiliuba.
Recent archaeological excavations have found fortifications in Mount Homon and La Carisa (near the Huerna and Pajares valleys) dated between the end of the seventh and beginning of the eighth centuries. The Berber fortifications included watchtowers and moats of almost two meters, in whose construction and defense many hundreds may have participated. That would have required a high degree of organization and firm leadership, probably by Pelayo himself.[18] Therefore, experts consider it probable that the construction of the defensive line was intended to prevent the reentry of Moors into Asturias through the mountain passes of Mesa and Pajares.[19]
King Pelagius at the Battle of Covadonga
After Pelayo's victory over the Moorish detachment at theBattle of Covadonga, a small territorial independent entity was established in the Asturian mountains that was the origin of the kingdom of Asturias. Pelayo's leadership was not comparable to that of the Visigothic kings. The first kings of Asturias referred to themselves as "princeps" (prince) and later as "rex" (king), but the later title was not firmly established until the period of Alfonso II. The title of "princeps" had been used by the indigenous peoples of Northern Spain and its use appears in Galician and Cantabrian inscriptions, in which expressions like "Nícer, Príncipe de los Albiones"[20] (on an inscription found in the district of Coaña) and "princeps cantabrorum"[21] (over a gravestone of the municipality of Cistierna, in Leon). In fact, the Kingdom of Asturias originated as a focus of leadership over other peoples of the Cantabrian Coast that had resisted the Romans as well as the Visigoths and that were not willing to subject themselves to the dictates of the Umayyad Caliphate. Immigrants from the south, fleeing from Al-Andalus, brought a Gothic influence to the Asturian kingdom. However, at the beginning of the 9th century, Alfonso II's will cursed the Visigoths, blaming them for the loss of Hispania. The later chronicles on which knowledge of the period is based, all written during the reign of Alfonso III, when there was great Gothic ideological influence, are the Sebastianensian Chronicle (Crónica Sebastianense), the Albeldensian Chronicle (Crónica Albeldense) and the Rotensian Chronicle (Crónica Rotense).
During the first decades, the Asturian dominion over the different areas of the kingdom was still lax and so it had to be continually strengthened through matrimonial alliances with other powerful families from the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, Ermesinda, Pelayo's daughter, was married toAlfonso,Dux Peter of Cantabria's son. Alfonso's sonFruela married Munia, a Basque princess from Alava, while his daughter Adosinda married Silo, a local chief from the area of Flavionavia, Pravia.
After Pelayo's death in 737, his sonFavila (or "Fafila") was elected king. Fafila, according to the chronicles, was unexpectedly killed by a bear while hunting in one of the trials of courage normally required of the nobility of that era. However, there is no other such incident known from the long history of monarchs and others at the sport, and the case is suspiciously similar to the Roman legend of their first king,Romulus, taken by a sudden storm. The immediate consequence was that the rule of the Asturians passed to his brother-in-law, ruler of the neighboring independent domain, through a marriage alliance to Fafila's sister. The female ties and rights of inheritance were still respected, and in later cases would allow the regency or crown for their husbands too.
Pelayo founded a dynasty in Asturias that survived for decades and gradually expanded the kingdom's boundaries, until all of northwest Iberia was included byc. 775. The reign ofAlfonso II from 791 to 842 saw further expansion of the kingdom to the south, almost as far asLisbon.
Favila was succeeded byAlfonso I, who inherited the throne of Asturias thanks to his marriage to Pelayo's daughter, Ermesinda. TheAlbeldensian Chronicle narrated how Alfonso arrived in the kingdom some time after the battle of Covadonga to marry Ermesinda. Favila's death made his access to the throne possible as well as the rise of one of the most powerful families in the Kingdom of Asturias, the House ofCantabria. Initially, only Alfonso moved to the court inCangas de Onís, but, after the progressive depopulation of the plateau and the Middle Valley of theEbro, where the main strongholds of the Duchy of Cantabria (e.g., Amaya, Tricio and the City of Cantabria) were located, the descendants of Duke Peter withdrew fromRioja towards the Cantabrian area and in time controlled the destiny of the Kingdom of Asturias.
Alfonso began the territorial expansion of the small Christian kingdom from its first seat in thePicos de Europa, advancing toward the west toGalicia and toward the south with continuous incursions in theDouro valley, taking cities and towns and moving their inhabitants to the safer northern zones. It eventually led to the strategic depopulation of the plateau, creating theDesert of the Duero as a protection against future Moorish attacks.[22]
The depopulation, defended byClaudio Sánchez-Albornoz, is doubted today, at least concerning its magnitude.[22] Two main arguments are used to refute it: first, the minor toponymy was preserved in multiple districts; second, there are biological and cultural differences between the inhabitants of the Cantabrian zone and those of the central Plateau. What is true is that in the first half of the eighth century there was a process of rural growth that led to the abandonment of urban life and the organization of the population in small communities of shepherds. Several causes explain this process: the definitive collapse of the Roman Mediterranean economic system from the time of the lateRoman Empire due to Arab conquests, the continuous propagation of epidemics in the area, and the abandonment ofal-Andalus by the Berber regiments after the revolt of 740–741. All this made possible the emergence of a sparsely populated and ill-organized area that insulated the Asturian kingdom from the Moorish assaults and allowed its progressive strengthening.
The campaigns of kings Alfonso I and Fruela in the Duero valley were probably not very different from the raids that theAstures made in the same area in the pre-Roman era. The initial Asturian expansion was carried out mainly through Cantabrian territory (from Galicia toVizcaya) and it was not until the reigns ofOrdoño I andAlfonso III that the Kingdom of Asturias could take effective possession of the territories located south of theCantabrian Mountains.
Fruela I, Alfonso I's son, consolidated and expanded his father's domains. He was assassinated by members of the nobility associated with the House of Cantabria.
Written sources are concise concerning the reigns ofAurelio,Silo,Mauregatus andBermudo I. Generally this period, with a duration of twenty-three years (768–791), has been considered as a long stage of obscurity and retreat of the kingdom of Asturias. This version, defended by some historians, who even named this historical phase as that of the "lazy kings", derived from the fact that, during it, there were apparently no important military actions against al-Andalus. However, there were relevant and decisive internal transformations, which provided a foundation for the strengthening and the expansion of Asturias.
First, the first internal rebellion, led by Mauregato (783–788), occurred during those years. The rebellion removed Alfonso II from the throne (although he became king again later, from 791 to 842). This initiated a series of further rebellions whose principal leaders were members of ascending aristocratic palace groups and landowners who, based on the growing economic development of the area, tried to unseat the reigning family of Don Pelayo. The important rebellions of Nepociano, Aldroito and Piniolo, during the reign ofRamiro I (842–50), are part of this process of economic, social, political and cultural transformation of the Asturian kingdom that occurred during the eighth and ninth centuries.
Second, neighboring rebellions byBasques andGalicians failed, quashed by Asturian kings. These rebels took advantage of the unrest in the central and Eastern part of Asturias, and, on occasion, provided help to one or another contender for the throne: by providing refuge to Alfonso II inAlava after his flight; the support for Nepociano's rebellion in some Asturian areas; and the adherence of Galicians to the cause of Ramiro I.
Finally, other evidence suggests important internal transformations occurred during this time. Rebellions offreedmen (serbi,servilis orico andlibertini, according to theChronicles) occurred during the reign of Aurelio I. The property relationship between master and slave broke down progressively. This fact, together with the growing role of the individual and the restricted family, to the detriment of the extended family, is another indication that a new society was emerging in Asturias at the end of the eighth and beginning of the ninth centuries.
Fruela I (757–68) was succeeded byAurelius (768–74), son ofFruela of Cantabria and Peter of Cantabria's grandson, who would establish the court in what is today the district ofSan Martín del Rey Aurelio, which previously belonged to Langreo.Silo (774–83) succeeded Aurelio after his death, and transferred the court toPravia. Silo was married toAdosinda, one of the daughters of Alfonso I (and therefore, Pelayo's granddaughter).
Alfonso II was elected king after Silo's death, but Mauregato organized a strong opposition and forced the new king to withdraw to lands in Alava (his mother, Munia, was Basque), obtaining the Asturian throne. The king, despite the bad reputation attributed by history, had good relations withBeatus of Liébana, perhaps the most important cultural figure of the kingdom, and supported him in his fight againstadoptionism. Legend says that Mauregato was Alfonso I's bastard son with a Moorish woman, and attributes to him the tribute of a hundred maidens. He was succeeded by Bermudo I, Aurelio's brother. He was called "the deacon", although he probably received only minor vows. Bermudo abdicated after a military defeat, ending his life in a monastery.
It was not untilKing Alfonso II (791–842) that the kingdom was firmly established, after Silo's subjugatedGallaecia and confirmed territorial gains in westernBasque Country.[23] Ties with the Carolingian Franks also got closer and more frequent, with Alfonso II's envoys presenting Charlemagne with spoils of war (campaign of Lisbon, 797). Alfonso II introduced himself as "an Emperor Charlemagne's man",[24] suggesting some kind of suzerainty.[25] During Alfonso II's reign, a probable reaction against indigenous traditions took place in order to strengthen his state and grip on power, by establishing in the Asturian Court the order and ceremonies of the former Visigoth Kingdom.[24] Around this time, the holy bones ofJames, son of Zebedee were declared to have been found in Galicia atIria Flavia. They were considered authentic by a contemporary pope of Rome. However, during the Asturian period, the final resting place ofEulalia of Mérida, located in Oviedo, became the primary religious site and focus of devotion.
Alfonso II also repopulated parts ofGalicia,León andCastile and incorporated them into the Kingdom of Asturias while establishing influence over parts of theBasques. The first capital city wasCangas de Onís, near the site of the battle of Cavadonga. Then inSilo's time, it was moved toPravia. Alfonso II chose his birthplace ofOviedo as the capital of the kingdom (circa 789).
Ramiro I began his reign by capturing several other claimants to the throne, blinding them, and then confining them to monasteries. As a warrior he managed to defeat a Viking invasion after the Vikings had landed at Corunna, and also fought several battles against the Moors.
When he succeeded his father Ramiro,Ordoño I (850–66) repressed a major revolt amongst the Basques in the east of the kingdom. In 859, Ordoño besieged the fortress of Albelda, built byMusa ibn Musa of theBanu Qasi, who had rebelled against Cordoba and became master of Zaragoza, Tudela, Huesca and Toledo. Musa attempted to lift the siege in alliance with his brother-in-law García Iñiguez, the king of Pamplona, whose small realm was threatened by the eastwards expansion of the Asturian monarchy. In the battle that followed, Musa was defeated and lost valuable treasures in the process, some of which were sent as a gift to Charles the Bald of Francia. Seven days after the victory, Albelda fell and, as the chronicler records, "its warriors were killed by the sword and the place itself was destroyed down to its foundations." Musa was wounded in the battle and died in 862/3; soon thereafter, Musa's son Lubb, governor of Toledo, submitted himself to the Asturian king for the rest of Ordoño's reign.
When Alfonso III's sons forced his abdication in 910, the Kingdom of Asturias split into three separate kingdoms:León,Galicia and Asturias. The three kingdoms were eventually reunited in 924 (León and Galicia in 914, Asturias later) under the crown of León. It continued under that name until incorporated into theKingdom of Castile in 1230, afterFerdinand III became joint king of the two kingdoms.
TheVikings invaded Galicia in 844, but were decisively defeated byRamiro I atCorunna.[8] Many of the Vikings' casualties were caused by the Galicians'ballistas – powerful torsion-powered projectile weapons that looked rather like giantcrossbows.[8][26] Seventy of the Vikings'longships were captured on the beach and burned.[8][27][28] A few months later, another fleettook Seville. The Vikings found in Seville a population which was still largely Gothic and Romano-Spanish.[29] The Gothic elements were important in the Andalusian emirate.[30]Musa ibn Musa, who took a leading part in the defeat of the Vikings atTablada, belonged to a powerfulMuwallad family of Gothic descent.[citation needed]
Vikings returned to Galicia in 859, during the reign ofOrdoño I. Ordoño was at the moment engaged against his constant enemies, theMoors, but a count of the province, Don Pedro, attacked the Vikings and defeated them,[31] inflicting severe losses upon them.[32] Ordoño's successor,Alfonso III, strove to protect the coast against attacks from Vikings or Moors. In 968,Gunrod of Norway attacked Galicia with 100 ships and 8,000 warriors.[33] They roamed freely for years and even occupied Santiago de Compostela. A Galician count of Visigothic descent,Gonzalo Sánchez, ended the Viking adventure in 971, when he launched an attack with a powerful army that defeated the Vikings in a bloody battle, and captured Gunrod, who was subsequently executed along with his followers.
The Santa Cruz dolmen, burial place of chieftains of the Eastern Asturian area since Megalithic times.
Although the earliest evidence of Christian worship in Asturias dates from the 5th century,evangelisation did not make any substantial progress until the middle of the sixth century, when hermits likeTuribius of Liébana and monks of the Saint Fructuoso order gradually settled in the Cantabrian mountains and began preaching the Christian doctrine.
Christianisation progressed slowly in Asturias and did not necessarily supplant the ancient pagan divinities. As elsewhere in Europe, the new religion coexisted syncretically with features of the ancient beliefs. In the sixth century, bishop San Martín de Braga complained in his workDe correctione rusticorum about the Galician peasants being attached to the pre-Christian cults: "Many demons, who were expelled from the heavens, settled in the sea, in the rivers, fountains and forests, and have come to be worshipped as gods by ignorant people. To them they do their sacrifices: in the sea they invoke Neptune, in the rivers the Lamias; in the fountains the Nymphs, and in the forests Diana."[34]
Theyew tree is still very important in Asturian folklore, where it stands as a link to theafterlife and is commonly found planted beside churches and cemeteries.
In the middle of the Sella valley, whereCangas de Onís is located, there was a dolmen area dating back to themegalithic era, and was likely built between 4000 and 2000 BC. Chieftains from the surrounding regions were ritually buried here, particularly in the Santa Cruz dolmen. Such practices survived the Roman and Visigothic conquests. Even in the eighth century, King Favila was buried there, along with the bodies of tribal leaders. Although the Asturian monarchy fostered the Christianisation of this site, by constructing a church, to this day there are still pagan traditions linked with the Santa Cruz dolmen. It is said thatxanas (Asturian fairies) appear to visitors, and magical properties are ascribed to the soil of the place.
According to an inscription found in the Santa Cruz church, it was consecrated in 738 and was presided by avates called Asterio. The wordvates is uncommon in Catholic documents and epitaphs, where the wordpresbyterus (for Christian priests) is preferred. However,vates was used in Latin to denote a poet who was clairvoyant, and according to the Ancient Greek writersStrabo,Diodorus Siculus, andPosidonius, thevates (ουατεις) were also one of three classes of Celtic priesthood, the other two being the druids and the bards. Some historians think that Asterio held a religious office which combined elements of paganism and Christianity, while others think he may be linked to the Brythonic refugees that settled inBritonia (Galicia) in the 6th century. TheParrochiale Suevorum, an administrative document from theKingdom of the Suebi, states that the lands of Asturias belonged to the Britonian See, and some features ofCeltic Christianity spread to Northern Spain. This is evidenced by the Celtictonsure, which the Visigothic bishops who participated in theFourth Council of Toledo condemned.[35]
Still extant Galician legends relate to monks who travelled by sea to the Paradise Islands, like those ofSaint Amaro,Trezenzonio orThe Legend of Ero of Armenteira. These stories have many parallels with those ofBrendan the navigator,Malo of Wales, and the stories of the Irishimmrama.
Asturian kings promoted Christianity and but also based their power on indigenous religious traditions, like other medieval European kings such asPenda of Mercia orWidukind, but also relied on Christian sacred scriptures (in particular, the books ofRevelation,Ezekiel andDaniel) and theChurch Fathers. These furnished the new monarchy with its foundational myths. They did not need to draft new laws since theVisigothic Code was the referential code, at least since the arrival of new influences including exiles, prisoners from the central area of al-Andalus in the 770s along with their mixed Berber-Arabic and Gothic legacy. This combined with governmental and religious ideas imported fromCharlemagne's Frankish Kingdom (Alcuin-Beatus of Liébana).
The foundations ofAsturian culture and that of Christian Spain in theHigh Middle Ages were laid during the reigns ofSilo and Mauregatus, when the Asturian kings submitted to the authority of theUmayyad emirs of theCaliphate of Córdoba. The most prominent Christian scholar in the Kingdom of Asturias of this period was Beatus of Liébana, whose works left an indelible mark on the Christian culture of the Reconquista.
Beatus was directly involved in the debate surrounding adoptionism, which argued thatJesus was born a man, and was adopted by God and acquired a divine dimension only after hispassion andresurrection. Beatus refuted this theological position, championed by such figures asElipando, bishop ofToledo.
The adoptionist theology had its roots in GothicArianism, which denied the divinity of Jesus, and inHellenistic religion, with examples of heroes likeHeracles who, after their death attained theapotheosis. Likewise, as Elipandus's bishopric of Toledo was at the time within the Muslim Caliphate of Cordoba, Islamic beliefs which acknowledged Jesus as a Prophet, but not as the Son of God, influenced the formation of adoptionism. However, the adoptionist theology was opposed strongly by Beatus from his abbey inSanto Toribio de Liébana. At the same time, Beatus strengthened the links among Asturias, theHoly See, and theCarolingian Empire, and was supported in his theological struggle by thePope and by his friend Alcuin of York, an Anglo-Saxon scholar who had settled among the Carolingian court inAachen.
The Angel of the Fifth Trumpet, an example of a Beatus manuscript.
The most transcendental works of Beatus were hisCommentaries to Apocalypse, which were copied in later centuries in manuscripts calledbeati, about which the Italian writerUmberto Eco said: "Their splendid images gave birth to the most relevant iconographic happening in the History of Mankind".[36] Beatus develops in them a personal interpretation of theBook of Revelation, accompanied by quotes from theOld Testament, theChurch Fathers and fascinating illustrations.
In theseCommentaries a new interpretation of the apocalyptic accounts is given:Babylon no longer represents the city of Rome, but Córdoba, seat of the Umayyad emirs of al-Andalus; the Beast, once a symbol of the Roman Empire, now stands for the Islamic invaders who during this time threatened to destroy Western Christianity, and who raided territories of the Asturian Kingdom.
The prologue to the second book of theCommentaries contains theBeatus map, one of the best examples of amappa mundi of the high medieval culture. The purpose of this map was not to represent the world cartographically, but to illustrate the Apostles' diaspora in the first decades of Christianity. Beatus took data from the works ofIsidore of Seville,Ptolemy and theBible. The world was represented as a land disc surrounded by the Ocean and divided in three parts: Asia (upper semicircle), Europe (lower left quadrant) and Africa (lower right quadrant). The Mediterranean Sea (Europe-Africa), the Nile River (Africa-Asia), the Aegean Sea, and the Bosphorus (Europe-Asia) were set as the boundaries between the different continents.
Beatus believed that theApocalypse described in the book of Revelation was imminent, which would be followed by 1290 years of domination by theAntichrist. Beatus followed the views ofAugustine of Hippo, whose work,The City of God, influenced theCommentaries which followed the premise that the history of the world was structured in six ages. The first five ones extended from the creation ofAdam to the Passion of Jesus, while the sixth, subsequent to Christ, ends with the unleashing of the events prophesied in the book of Revelation.
For Beatus of Liébana, theWhore of Babylon (Revelation, 17.4-5)[37] (a Christian allegory of evil) was incarnated by the Emirate of Córdoba.
Millennialist movements were very common in Europe at that time. Between 760 and 780, a series of cosmic phenomena stirred up panic among the population ofGaul; John, a visionary monk, predicted the coming of theLast Judgment during the reign ofCharlemagne. In this time the Apocalypse of Daniel appeared, aSyriac text redacted during the rule of the empressIrene of Athens, wherein wars between theArabs, the Byzantines and the Northern peoples were prophesied. These wars would end with the coming of the Antichrist.
Events taking place in Hispania (Islamic rule, the adoptionist heresy, the gradual assimilation of theMozarabs) were, for Beatus, signals of the imminent apocalypse.aeon. As Elipandus describes in hisLetter from the bishops of Spania to their brothers in Gaul, the abbot of Santo Toribio went so far as to announce to his countrymen the coming of the End of Time on Easter of the year 800. On the dawn of that day, hundreds of peasants met around the abbey of Santo Toribio, waiting, terrified, for the fulfillment of the prophecy. They remained in there, without eating for a day and half, until one of them, named Ordonius, exclaimed: "Let us eat and drink, so that if the End of the World comes we are full!".
The prophetic and millennialist visions of Beatus produced an enduring mark in the development of the Kingdom of Asturias: theChronica Prophetica, which was written around 880 CE, predicted the final fall of the Emirate of Córdoba, and the conquest and redemption of the entireIberian Peninsula by king Alfonso III. Millennialist imagery is also reflected throughout the kingdom in theVictory Cross icon, the major emblem of the Asturian kingdom, which has its origins in a passage of the Revelation book in whichJohn of Patmos relates a vision of theSecond Coming. He sees Jesus Christ seated in his majesty, surrounded by clouds and affirming: "I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, which is, and which was, and which is to come, the Almighty".[38] It is true that usage of thelabarum was not restricted to Asturias, and dates back to the time ofConstantine the Great, who used this symbol during theBattle of the Milvian Bridge. However, it was in Asturias where the Cruz de la Victoria attained a general use: in nearly everypre-Romanesque church this icon is engraved,[39][40] often accompanied with the expression "Hoc signo tuetur pius, in hoc signo vincitur inimicus",[41] that became the royal motto of the Asturian monarchs.
Another of the major spiritual legacies of the Asturian kingdom is the creation of one of the most important ways of cultural transmission in European history: theCamino de Santiago. The first text which mentions St. James' preaching in Spain is theBreviarius de Hyerosolima, a 6th-century document which stated that the Apostle was buried in an enigmatic place calledAca Marmarica [gl]. Isidore of Seville supported this theory in his workDe ortu et obitu patrium. One hundred and fifty years later, in the times of Mauregato, the hymnO Dei Verbum rendered St. James as "the golden head of Spain, our protector and national patron" and a mention is made of his preaching in the Iberian Peninsula during the first decades of Christianity. Some attribute this hymn to Beatus, although this is still discussed by historians.
The legend of St. James gained support during the reign ofAlfonso II. The period was marked by Alfonso II's reaching out to Charlemagne for military assistance and importation of similar royal ceremonies and governmental structures. GalicianPelagius the Hermit claimed to observe a mysterious brightness during several nights over theLibredon [gl] forest, in Iria Flavia diocese. Angelic songs accompanied the lights. Impressed by this phenomenon,Pelayo appeared before the bishop of Iria Flavia,Theodemir, who – after having heard the hermit – visited the location with his retinue. Legend has it that in the depths of the forest was found a stone sepulchre with three corpses, which were identified as those ofSt. James, son of Zebedee, and his two disciples, Theodorus and Atanasius. According to the legend, King Alfonso was the first pilgrim who had come to see the Apostle. During his travels he was guided at night by theMilky Way, which from then on acquired the name ofCamino de Santiago.
The founding of the alleged St. James tomb was a formidable political success for the Kingdom of Asturias: Now Asturias could claim the honour of having the body of one of the apostles of Jesus, a privilege shared only with Asia (Ephesus) whereJohn the Apostle was buried, and Rome, where the bodies ofSaint Peter andSaint Paul rested. As of the early 12th century,Santiago de Compostela grew to become one of the three sacred cities of Christianity, together with Rome andJerusalem. In later centuries, many Central European cultural influences travelled to Iberia through the Way of St. James, from the Gothic and Romanesque styles, to the Occitan lyric poetry.
However, the story of the "discovery" of the remains of the Apostle shows some enigmatic features. The tomb was found in a place used as anecropolis since theLate Roman Empire, so it is possible that the body belonged to a prominent person of the area.British historianHenry Chadwick hypothesized the tomb of Compostela actually hold the remains ofPriscillian. Historian Roger Collins holds that the identification of the relics (at any rate nothing close to a full body) with Saint James is related to the translation of the remains found under a 6th-century church altar in Mérida, where various saint names are listed, Saint James among them. Other scholars, like Constantino Cabal, highlighted the fact that several Galician places, such as Pico Sacro, Pedra da Barca (Muxía) or San Andrés de Teixido, were already draws for pagan pilgrimage in pre-Roman times. Pagan beliefs held these places as the End of the World and as entrances to the CelticOtherworld. After the discovery of Saint James' tomb, the gradual Christianization of those pilgrimage routes began.
Since the Chronicles of the Asturian kingdom were written a century and a half after the battle of Covadonga, there are many aspects of the first Asturian kings that remain shrouded in myth and legend.
Although the historicity of Pelayo is beyond doubt, the historical narrative describing him includes many folktales and legends. One of them asserts that, prior to the Muslim invasion, Pelayo went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the sacred city of Christianity. However, there is no extant evidence of this.
Likewise, it is also said that theCruz de la Victoria was at first carved in an oak's log by a lightning strike.[42] The core of this story contains two elements of major importance in the Asturian folklore. On one hand, lightning was the ancient symbol of the Astur godTaranis, and in Asturian mythology was thought to be forged by theNuberu, lord of clouds, rain and wind. On the other hand, the oak tree is the symbol of the Asturian royalty and in reliefs of the Abamia Church (where Pelayo was buried) leaves of that tree are shown.[citation needed]
The Covadonga area is also rich with astonishing stories, such as the one which is said to have happened in a shepherd village where todayLakes Enol and Ercina are situated.Mary, mother of Jesus, disguised as a pilgrim, is said to have visited that village and asked for food and shelter from every house. She was rudely rejected by every person, except for a shepherd who gave her refuge and warmly shared everything he had. On the following day, as punishment for their lack of hospitality, a flood of divine origin devastated the village, which completely covered everything except the cottage of the good shepherd. In front of him, the mysterious guest started to cry, and her tears became flowers when they reached the floor. Then the shepherd realized that the pilgrim was actually Mary.[citation needed]
There are also myths about the Asturian monarchy that are rooted in Jewish and Christian traditions rather than pagan ones: theChronica ad Sebastianum tells of an extraordinary event that happened when Alfonso I died.[citation needed] While the noblemen were holding a wake for him, there could be heard celestial canticles sung by angels. They recited the following text of the Book of Isaiah (which happens to be the same that was read by the Mozarabic priests during theVigil of theHoly Saturday):
I said in the cutting off of my days, I shall go to the gates of the grave: I am deprived of the residue of my years. I said, I shall not see the LORD, even the LORD, in the land of the living: I shall behold man no more with the inhabitants of the world. Mine age is departed, and is removed from me as a shepherd's tent: I have cut off like a weaver my life: he will cut me off with pining sickness: from day even to night wilt thou make an end of me. I reckoned till morning, that, as a lion, so will he break all my bones: from day even to night wilt thou make an end of me. Like a crane or a swallow, so did I chatter: I did mourn as a dove: mine eyes fail with looking upward: O LORD, I am oppressed; undertake for me.
— Is. 38:10–14
This canticle was recited byHezekiah, king of Judah, after his recovery from a serious illness. In these verses, the king regretted with distress his departure tosheol, the Jewish underworld, a shady place where he would not see God nor men any more.
Asturias also has examples of theking in the mountain myth. According to the tradition, it is still today possible to see kingFruela walking around theJardín de los Reyes Caudillos[43] (a part of the Oviedo Cathedral), and it is said that his grandson, the famous cavalierBernardo del Carpio, sleeps in a cave in the Asturian mountains. The story tells that one day a peasant went into a certain cave to retrieve his lost cow and heard a strong voice who declared to be Bernardo del Carpio, victor over the Franks inRoncevaux.[44] After saying he had lived alone for centuries in that cave, he told the peasant: "Give me your hand, so that I can see how strong are men today". The shepherd, scared, gave him the horn of the cow, which, when seized by the giant man, was immediately broken. The poor villager ran away terrified, but not without hearing Bernardo say: "Current men are not like those who helped me to kill Frenchmen in Roncevaux".[45][46]
Ercina lake,Covadonga. According to the legend, under its waters a village—or perhaps a city—is hidden.
Illustration of Hezekiah's Canticle belonging to theTrès Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. The Asturian monarchs often took the kings of the Old Testament as their models.
Church ofSanta María del Naranco, formeraula regia of the Asturian royal palace. Eastern façade. This is probably the finest example of Asturian architecture.
This kingdom is the birthplace of an influential Europeanmedieval architectural style: Asturian pre-Romanesque. This style of architecture was founded during the reign ofRamiro I.
This small kingdom was a milestone in the fight against the adoptionist heresy, with Beatus of Liébana as a major figure. In the time of Alfonso II, the shrine ofSantiago de Compostela was "found". The pilgrimage to Santiago, Camiño de Santiago, was a major nexus within Europe, and many pilgrims (and their money) passed through Asturias on their way to Santiago de Compostela.
^This is the chronicle ofAlfonso III of Asturias in which Pelayo is considered the successor of the kings of Toledo, with the clear goal of establishing Alfonso's political legitimacy.
^A Maghrebi historian of the 16th century who died in Cairo, Egypt, and who could have used theRotensian Chronicle and rewritten it eight centuries later, making it useless as a historical document.
^In Latin: "Et in mare quidem Neptunum appellant, in fluminibus Lamias, in fontibus Nymphas, in silvis Dianas, quae omnia maligni daemones et spiritus nequam sunt, qui homines infideles, qui signaculo crucis nesciunt se munire, nocent et vexant".
^Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo, "Historia de los heterodoxos españoles I", Madrid, 1978, chapter II, note 48
^Umberto Eco wrote an essay about them,Beato di Liebana (1976)
^"And the woman was arrayed in purple and scarlet colour, and decked with gold and precious stones and pearls, having a golden cup in her hand full of abominations and filthiness of her fornication: And upon her forehead was a name written, MYSTERY, BABYLON THE GREAT, THE MOTHER OF HARLOTS AND ABOMINATIONS OF THE EARTH."
^"With this sign thou shalt defend the pious, with this sign thou shalt defeat the enemy".
^Simbología mágico-tradicional, Alberto Álvarez Peña, page 147.
^Relatos legendarios sobre los orígenes políticos de Asturias y Vizcaya en la Edad Media, Arsenio F. Dacosta, Actas del VII Congreso Internacional de la Asociación Española de Semiótica (Volumen II).
^In medieval Spain, it was commonly thought that it was the Asturians or the Moors, and not the Basques, who beat the Franks in this battle.
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