TheKingdom of Aksum,[note 1][a] or theAksumite Empire,[b] was a kingdom inEast Africa andSouth Arabia fromclassical antiquity to theMiddle Ages, based in what is now northernEthiopia andEritrea, and spanning present-dayDjibouti andSudan. Emerging from the earlierDʿmt civilization, the kingdom was founded in the first century.[8][9] The city ofAxum served as the kingdom's capital for many centuries until it relocated toKubar[10] in the ninth century due to declining trade connections and recurring invasions.[11][12]
Aksumite dominance in the Red Sea culminated during the reign ofKaleb of Axum (514–542), who, at the behest of the Byzantine emperorJustin I, invaded theHimyarite Kingdom in Yemen in order to end thepersecution of Christians perpetrated by the Jewish kingDhu Nuwas. With the annexation of Himyar, the Kingdom of Aksum reached its largest territorial extent, spanning around 2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi). However, the territory was lost in theAksumite–Persian wars.[17] Aksum held on to Southern Arabia from 520 until 525 whenSumyafa Ashwa was deposed byAbraha.
The kingdom's slow decline had begun by the seventh century, at which point currency ceased to be minted. The Persian (and later Muslim) presence in the Red Sea caused Aksum to suffer economically, and the population of the city of Axum shrank. Alongside environmental and internal factors, this has been suggested as the reason for its decline. Aksum's final three centuries are considered a dark age, and the kingdom collapsed under uncertain circumstances around 960.[15] Despite its position as one of the foremost empires of late antiquity, the Kingdom of Aksum fell into obscurity as Ethiopia remained isolated throughout the Late Middle Ages.[18]
Etymology
Carlo Conti Rossini believed that the wordAksum derives from a Semitic root, and means 'a green and dense garden' or 'full of grass'.[19]
History
Early history
Before the establishment of Axum, Eritrea and the Tigray plateau of northern Ethiopia was home to a kingdom known asDʿmt. Archaeological evidence shows that the kingdom was influenced bySabaeans from modern-day Yemen; scholarly consensus had previously been that Sabaeans had been the founders of Semitic civilization in Ethiopia, though this has now been refuted, and their influence is considered to have been minor.[20][ii][21] The Sabaean presence likely lasted only for a matter of decades, but their influence on later Aksumite civilization included the adoption ofAncient South Arabian script, which developed intoGeʽez script, andAncient Semitic religion.[22]
The initial centuries of Aksum's development, transitioning from a modest regional center to a significant power, remain largely obscure. Stone Age artifacts have been unearthed atGobedra, two kilometers west ofAksum. Excavations on Beta Giyorgis, a hill to the northwest of Aksum, validate the pre-Aksumite roots of a settlement in the vicinity of Aksum, dating back to approximately the seventh to fourth centuries BC. Further evidence from excavations in the Stele Park at the heart of Aksum corroborates continuous activity in the area from the outset of the common era. Two hills and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city of Aksum, perhaps providing the initial impetus for settling this area.[23][24][25]
Archeological evidence suggests that the Aksumite polity arose between 150 BC and 150 AD. Small scale district "kingdoms" denoted by very large nucleated communities with one or more elite residences appears to have existed in the early period of the kingdom of Aksum, and hereStuart Munro-Hay concludes that "Quite probably, the kingdom was a confederacy, one of which was led by a district-level king who commanded the allegiance of other petty kings within the Axumite realm. The ruler of the Axumite kingdom was thus 'king of kings' — a title often found in inscriptions of this period. There is no evidence that a single royal lineage has yet emerged, and it is quite possible that at the death of a king of kings, a new one would be selected from among all the kings in the confederacy, rather than through some principle of primogeniture."[26][27]
Rise of Aksum
The first historical mention of Axum comes from thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea, a trading guide which likely dates to the mid-first century AD. Axum is mentioned alongsideAdulis andPtolemais of the Hunts as lying within the realm ofZoskales. The area is described as a primarily producing ivory, as well as tortoise shells. It is evident from the Periplus that, even at this early stage of its history, Axum played a role in the transcontinentaltrade route between Rome and India.[28][29]
The Aksumite control overAdulis enabled the exchange of Ethiopian products for foreign imports. BothPliny the Elder and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea make reference to this port, situated three days away from the initial ivory market atColoe, itself five days distant from Aksum. This trade across the Red Sea, spanning from the Roman Empire in the north to India and Ceylon in the east, played a crucial role in Aksum's prosperity. The city thrived by exporting goods such as ivory, tortoiseshell, and rhinoceros horn. Pliny also mentioned additional items like hippopotamus hide, monkeys, and slaves. During the second century AD,Ptolemy's geographer referred to Aksum as a powerful kingdom. Both archaeological findings and textual evidence suggest that during this period, a centralized regional polity had emerged in the Aksumite area, characterized by defined social stratification. By the beginning of the fourth century AD, the Aksumite state had become well-established, featuring urban centers, an official currency with coinage struck in gold, silver, and copper, an intensive agricultural system, and a organized military.[30]
Around 200 AD, Aksumite ambitions had expanded to Southern Arabia, where Aksum appears to have established itself inal-Maafer and engaged in conflicts with Saba and Himyar at various points, forming different alliances with chief kingdoms and tribes. During the early part of the third century, the kingsGDRT andʽDBH dispatched military expeditions to the region. Inscriptions from local Arabian dynasties refer to these rulers with the title "nagasi of Aksum and Habashat," and a metal object discovered in eastern Tigray also mentions a certain "GDRnegus of Aksum." Later in the century themlky hhst dtwns wzqrns (kings of HabashatDTWNS and ZQRNS) are also mentionedfighting in Arabia. According to a Greek inscription in Eritrea known as theMonumentum Adulitanum recorded byCosmas Indicopleustes, in around the mid to late third century (possibly circa 240 to circa 260), the Aksumites, led by an anonymous king, achieved significant territorial expansion in theEthiopian Highlands and theArabian Peninsula, with their influence extending as far asLake Tana and the borders of Egypt.[31][32][33]
By the end of the third century AD, Aksum had gained recognition by the prophetMani in theKephalaia, as one of the four great powers of the world alongside Rome, Persia, and China. As the political influence of Aksum expanded, so did the grandeur of its monuments. Excavations by archaeological expeditions revealed early use of stelae, evolving from plain and rough markers to some of the largest monuments in Africa. The granite steles in the main cemetery, housing Aksumite royal tombs, transformed from plain to carefully dressed granite, eventually carved to resemble multi-storey towers in a distinctive architectural style. Aksumite architecture featured massive dressed granite blocks, smaller uncut stones for walling, mud mortar, bricks for vaulting and arches, and a visible wooden framework, known as "monkey-heads" or square corner extrusions. Walls inclined inwards and incorporated several recessed bays for added strength. Aksum and other cities, such asAdulis andMatara, boasted substantial "palace" buildings employing this architectural style. In the early sixth century,Cosmas Indicopleustes described his visit to Aksum, mentioning the four-towered palace of the Aksumite king, adorned with bronze statues of unicorns. Aksum also featured rows of monumental granite thrones, likely bearing metal statues dedicated to pre-Christian deities. These thrones incorporated large panels at the sides and back with inscriptions, attributed toOusanas,Ezana,Kaleb, and his sonWazeba, serving as victory monuments documenting the wars of these kings.[34]
KingEzana became the first Christian ruler of Aksum in the fourth century. Ezana's coins and inscriptions make the change from pre-Christian imagery to Christian symbolism around 340. The conversion to Christianity was one of the most revolutionary events in the history of Ethiopia as it gave Aksum a cultural link with theMediterranean. Aksum gained a political link with theByzantine Empire, which regarded itself as the protector ofChristendom. Three inscriptions on theEzana Stone documents the conversion of King Ezana to Christianity and two of his military expeditions against neighboring areas, one inscribed in Greek and the other in Ge'ez. The two expeditions refers to two distinct campaigns, one against the "Noba", and the other against theBeja. According to the inscription, the Noba were settled somewhere around the Nile and Atbara confluence, where they seemed to have taken over much of theKingdom of Kush. Yet they did not drive the Kushites away from their heartland since the inscription states that the Aksumites fought them at the junction of the two rivers. Also mentioned in the inscription are the mysterious "red Noba" against whom an expedition was carried out. This people seems to be settled further north and may be identical with the "other Nobades" mentioned in the inscription of the Nubian kingSilko carved on the wall of theTemple of Kalabsha.[35][36]
King Kaleb sent an expedition against the JewishHimyarite kingDhu Nuwas, who was persecuting the Christian community in Yemen. Kaleb gained widespread acclaim in his era as the conqueror of Yemen. He expanded his royal title to include king of Hadramawt in southeastern Yemen, as well as the coastal plain and highland of Yemen, along with "all their Arabs", highlighting the extensive influence of Aksum across the Red Sea into Arabia.Dhu Nuwas was deposed and killed and Kaleb appointed an Arab viceroy namedEsimiphaios ("Sumuafa Ashawa"), but his rule was short-lived as he was ousted in a coup led by an Aksumite namedAbraha after five years. Kaleb sent two expeditions against Abraha, but both were decisively defeated. According toProcopius, following Aksum's unsuccessful attempts to remove him,Abraha continued to govern Yemen through a tribute arrangement with the king of Aksum.[37][38]
AfterAbraha's death, his son Masruq Abraha continued the Aksumite vice-royalty in Yemen, resuming payment of tribute to Aksum. However, his half-brother Ma'd-Karib revolted. Ma'd-Karib first sought help from the Roman EmperorJustinian the Great, but having been denied, he decided to ally with theSassanid Persian EmperorKhosrow I, triggering theAksumite–Persian wars. Khosrow I sent a small fleet and army under commanderVahrez to depose the king of Yemen. The war culminated with theSiege of Sana'a, capital of Aksumite Yemen. After its fall in 570, and Masruq's death, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne. In 575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed by Aksumites. The Persian generalVahrez led another army of 8,000, ending Axum rule in Yemen and becoming hereditary governor of Yemen. According toStuart Munro-Hay, these wars may have been Aksum's swan song as a great power, with an overall weakening of Aksumite authority and over-expenditure in money and manpower.[39]
Aksumite trade in the Red Sea likely suffered due to the Persian conquests in Egypt and Syria, followed by the defeats in Yemen. However, a more enduring impact occurred with the rise ofIslam in the early seventh century and the expansion of theRashidun Caliphate. Axum initially had good relations with its Islamic neighbours. In 615, for example, earlyMuslims fromMecca fleeingQurayshi persecution traveled to Axum and were given refuge; this journey is known inIslamic history as theFirst Hijrah. In 630,Muhammad sent a naval expedition against suspected Abyssinian pirates, theExpedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz.[40][41] Trade with the Roman and Byzantine world came to a halt as the Arabs seized the eastern Roman provinces. Consequently, Aksum experienced a decline in prosperity due to increased isolation and eventually ceased production of coins in the early eighth century.[42] The decline of Aksum contributed to the emergence of the nearby Islamic-influencedHarla Kingdom.[43]
The Islamic conquests were not solely responsible for the decline of Aksum. Another reason for the decline was the expansions of theBeja nomads. Due to the poverty of their country, many of them began to migrate into the northern Ethiopian plateau. At the end of the seventh century, a strong Beja tribe known as theZanafaj entered theEritrean plateau through the valley ofGash-Barka. They overran and pillaged much of theEritrean highlands as Aksum could no longer maintain its sovereignty over the frontier. As a result, the connection to theRed Sea ports was lost.[44]
Around this same time, the Aksumite population was forced to go farther inland to thehighlands for protection, abandoning Aksum as the capital. Arab writers of the time continued to describe Ethiopia (no longer referred to as Aksum) as an extensive and powerful state, though they had lost control of most of the coast and their tributaries.[45] While land was lost in the north, it was gained in the south, and though Ethiopia was no longer an economic power, it still attracted Arab merchants. The capital was then moved south to a new location calledKubar.[20] The Arab writerYa'qubi was the first to describe the new Aksumite capital. The capital was probably located in southernTigray orAngot; however, the exact location of this city is currently unknown.[46]Famine is noted in Ethiopia in the ninth century. The Coptic patriarchsJames (819–830) andJoseph (830–849) of Alexandria attribute Ethiopia's condition to war, plague, and inadequate rains.[47] Under the reign ofDegna Djan, during the ninth century, the empire kept expanding south, undertaking missionary activities south ofAngot.[48]
Ruins ofDungur in Aksum, Tigray Region, EthiopiaCoins of KingEzana, 330–360 AD.
Local history holds that, around 960, a Jewish queen named Yodit (Judith) or "Gudit" defeated the empire and burned its churches and literature. While there is evidence of churches being burned and an invasion around this time, her existence has been questioned by some western authors.Gudit sacked Aksum by destroying churches and buildings, persecuted Christians and committed Christianiconoclasm. Her origin has been debated among scholars. Some argued that she had aJewish ethnicity or was from a southern region. According to one traditional account, she reigned for forty years and herdynasty lasted until 1137 C.E., when it was overthrown byMara Takla Haymanot, resulting in the inception of theAgaw-ledZagwe dynasty.[49]
According to an oral tradition, Gudit rose to power after she killed theBeta Israel king and then reigned for forty years. She brought her Jewish army fromSemien Mountains andLake Tana to orchestrate the pillage against Aksum and its countryside. She was determined to destroy all members of the Aksumite dynasty, palaces, churches and monuments inTigray. Her notorious deeds are still recounted by peasants inhabiting northern Ethiopia. Large ruins, standing stones and steles are found in the area.[50] Gudit also killed the last emperor of Aksum, possiblyDil Na'od, while other accounts say Dil Na'od went into exile inShewa, protected by Christians. He begged assistance from aNubian Greek ruler, KingMoses Georgios, but his plea was unanswered.[51][unreliable source?] She was said to have been succeeded by Dagna-Jan, whose throne name was Anbasa Wudem.[49] Her reign was marked by the displacement of the Aksumite population into the south. According to one Ethiopian traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her dynasty was eventually overthrown byMara Tekla Haymanot in 1137 C.E., who ushered in the formation of theZagwe dynasty by bearing children with a descendant of the last Aksumite emperor, Dil Na'od.[52]
After a short Dark Age, the Aksumite Empire was succeeded by theZagwe dynasty in the eleventh or twelfth century (most likely around 1137), although limited in size and scope. However,Yekuno Amlak, who killed the last Zagwe king and founded the modernSolomonic dynasty around 1270 traced his ancestry and his right to rule from the last emperor of Aksum,Dil Na'od. It should be mentioned that the end of the Aksumite Empire didn't mean the end of Aksumite culture and traditions; for example, the architecture of the Zagwe dynasty atLalibela andYemrehana Krestos Church shows heavy Aksumite influence.[20]
Society
The Aksumite population mainly consisted ofSemitic-speaking groups, one of these groups were theAgʿazian or the speakers ofGeʽez, the commenter of theAdulis inscription identifies them as the main inhabitants ofAksum and its surroundings. TheCushitic-speakingAgaw people were also known to have lived within the kingdom, asCosmas Indicopleustes notes that a "governor of Agau", was entrusted by KingKaleb of Axum with the protection of the vital long-distance caravan routes from the south, suggesting that they lived within the southern frontier of the Aksumite kingdom.[53][54] Aksum also had a sizeableGreek population, which resided in the cities ofPtolemais Theron andAdulis.[55]Nilotic groups also inhabited Aksum, as inscriptions from the time ofEzana note the "Barya", an animist tribe who lived in the western part of the empire, believed to be theNaras.[56][57]
Aksumite settlements were distributed across a significant portion of the highlands in the northern Horn of Africa, with the majority located in northeasternTigray, Ethiopia, as well as theAkele Guzai andSeraye regions of Eritrea. Despite the concentration in these areas, some Aksumite settlements such asMifsas Bahri are located as far asOfla. In addition to the highlands, sites from the Aksumite period were discovered along the Red Sea coast of Eritrea, near theGulf of Zula. Numerous Aksumite settlements were strategically positioned along an axis that traversed from Aksum to theGulf of Zula, forming a route connecting the Aksumite capital in the highlands to the principal Aksumite port ofAdulis on the Red Sea. Along this route, two of the largest Aksumite-era settlements,Matara andQohaito, were situated in the Eritrean highlands. The concertation of these Aksumite ancient settlements suggests high population density in the highlands of Tigray and central Eritrea. The southern regions of the Aksumite polity are little known. However, in the mountains ofLasta andWollo, archeological surveys appear to have located sites with Aksumite affinities, particularly nearMount Abuna Yosef.[58][59]
A complex agricultural system in the Aksumite area, which involved irrigation, dam construction, terracing, and plough-farming, played a crucial role in sustaining both urban and rural populations. Aksumite farmers cultivated a variety of cereal crops with origins from both Africa and the Near East. These crops includedteff,finger millet,sorghum, emmer wheat, bread wheat, hulled barley, and oats. In addition to cereal crops, Aksumite farmers also grew linseed, cotton, grapes, and legumes of Near Eastern origin such as lentils, fava beans, chickpeas, common peas, and grass peas. Other important crops included the African oil crop,Guizotia abyssinica, as well as gourds and cress. This diverse range of crops, combined with the herding of domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats, contributed to the creation of a highly productive indigenous agropastoral food-producing tradition. This tradition played an integral role in the development of the Aksumite economy and the consolidation of state power.[60]
The Empire of Aksum is notable for a number of achievements, such as its own alphabet, theGeʽez script, which was eventually modified to includevowels, becoming anabugida. Furthermore, in the early times of the empire, around 1700 years ago, giant obelisks to mark emperors' (and nobles') tombs (underground grave chambers) were constructed, the most famous of which is theObelisk of Aksum.
Greek became the official and literary language of the Axumite state, coming from the influence of the significantEthiopian Greek communities established inAxum, the port ofAdulis,Ptolemais Theron, and other cities in the region duringPtolemaic times.[64][65][66] Greek was used in the state's administration, international diplomacy, and trade; it can be widely seen in coinage and inscriptions.[67][68][69][70]
Geʿez, the language ofAgʿazi, was spoken alongside Greek in the court of Aksum. Although during the early kingdom, Geʿez was a spoken language, it has attestations written in the Old South Arabian languageSabaic.[71][72][73] In the fourth century,Ezana of Axum promoted theGeʽez script and made Geʽez an official state language alongside Greek; by the sixth century literary translations into Geʿez were common.[67][74][75][76] After the seventh century's Muslim conquests in the Middle East and North Africa, which effectively isolated Axum from the Greco-Roman world, Geʿez replaced Greek entirely.[77][18]
Literature
Early on in the Christian period, several texts began to be translated into Ge'ez in the Kingdom of Aksum for religious purposes. The most famous example is represented by theGarima Gospels, a set of manuscripts containing all four Gospels translated into Ethiopic dating between the fourth and sixth centuries.[78] Citations of the Bible occur in several Aksumite inscriptions that have been found in South Arabia.[79] Dating to roughly the same time period, theAksumite Collection is a multi-text manuscript dating to the 13th century, at the latest, but containing a large number of documents which must have been translated into Ge'ez between the fourth and sixth centuries, covering subjects including liturgy, canon law, historiography, letters and treatises, etc.[80][81]
Other translations include the entire Greek Bible, parabiblical texts (including theBook of Enoch,Book of Jubilees,4 Baruch, and theAscension of Isaiah), and other theological texts like the Qerallos. Native Ethiopic texts from this period are less certain, though it was a period active with translations from Greek texts.[82] The reception or translation ofSyriac literature during the Aksumite age is still unattested.[83] In recent decades, the known corpus of Aksumite literature has grown substantially.[84]
Before its conversion to Christianity, the Aksumites practiced apolytheistic religion related to the religion practiced in southern Arabia. This included the use of the crescent-and-disc symbol used in southern Arabia and the northern horn.[85] In theUNESCO-sponsoredGeneral History of Africa, French archaeologist Francis Anfray suggests that the Aksumites worshippedAstar, his sonMahrem, andBeher.[86]
A Table of Hieroglyphics found at Axum c. 19th century
Steve Kaplan argues that with Aksumite culture came a major change in religion, with only Astar remaining of the old gods, the others being replaced by what he calls a "triad of indigenous divinities, Mahrem, Beher and Medr." He also suggests that Aksum culture was significantly influenced by Judaism, saying that "The first carriers of Judaism reached Ethiopia between the reign ofQueen of Sheba BC and conversion to Christianity of King Ezana in the fourth century AD." He believes that although Ethiopian tradition suggests that these were present in large numbers, "A relatively small number of texts and individuals dwelling in the cultural, economic, and political center could have had a considerable impact", and that "their influence was diffused throughout Ethiopian culture in its formative period. By the time Christianity took hold in the fourth century, many of the originally Hebraic-Jewish elements had been adopted by much of the indigenous population and were no longer viewed as foreign characteristics. Nor were they perceived as in conflict with the acceptance of Christianity."[87]
Before converting to Christianity, King Ezana II's coins and inscriptions show that he might have worshiped the gods Astar, Beher, Meder/Medr, and Mahrem. Another of Ezana's inscriptions is clearly Christian and refers to "the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit".[88] Around 324 AD the King Ezana II was converted to Christianity by his teacherFrumentius, who established the Axumite Coptic Church, which later became the modernEthiopian Orthodox Church.[89][90][91] Frumentius taught the emperor while he was young, and it is believed that at some point staged the conversion of the empire.[92][93] We know that the Aksumites converted to Christianity because in their coins they replaced the disc and crescent with the cross.
Frumentius was in contact with theChurch of Alexandria, and was appointed Bishop of Ethiopia around the year 330. The Church of Alexandria never closely managed the affairs of the churches in Aksum, allowing them to develop their own unique form of Christianity.[23][24] However, the Church of Alexandria probably did retain some influence considering that the churches of Aksum followed the Church of Alexandria intoOriental Orthodoxy by rejecting the Fourth EcumenicalCouncil of Chalcedon.[94] Aksum is also the alleged home of the holy relic the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark is said to have been placed in theChurch of Our Lady Mary of Zion by Menelik I for safekeeping.[61][62]
Islam arrived in the seventh century, during the reign ofAshama ibn-Abjar, when the first followers of the Islamic prophetMuhammad (also known as theSahabah) migrated fromArabia due to their persecution by theQuraysh, the ruling Arab tribal confederation ofMecca. TheQuraysh appealed to theAshama ibn-Abjar, arguing that the early Muslim migrants were rebels who had invented a new religion, the likes of which neither the Meccans nor the Aksumites had heard of. The king granted them an audience, but ultimately refused to hand over the migrants. Asecond migration consisting of 100 Muslim migrants occurred a few years later. Arabic inscriptions on theDahlak Archipelago dated to the mid ninth century AD. confirm the existence of an early Muslim presence in Aksum.[95]
In general, elite Aksumite buildings such as palaces were constructed atoppodia built of loose stones held together with mud-mortar, with carefully cut granite corner blocks which rebated back a few centimeters at regular intervals as the wall got higher, so the walls narrowed as they rose higher. These podia are often all that survive of Aksumite ruins. Above the podia, walls were generally built with alternating layers of loose stone (often whitewashed, like atYemrehana Krestos Church) and horizontal wooden beams, with smaller round wooden beams set in the stonework often projecting out of the walls (these are called 'monkey heads') on the exterior and sometimes the interior.
Both the podia and the walls above exhibited no long straight stretches but were indented at regular intervals so that any long walls consisted of a series of recesses and salients. This helped to strengthen the walls. Worked granite was used for architectural features including columns, bases, capitals, doors, windows, paving, water spouts (often shaped like lion heads) and so on, as well as enormous flights of stairs that often flanked the walls of palace pavilions on several sides. Doors and windows were usually framed by stone or wooden cross-members, linked at the corners by square 'monkey heads', though simple lintels were also used. Many of these Aksumite features are seen carved into the famous stelae as well as in the laterrock hewn churches ofTigray andLalibela.[20]
Palaces usually consisted of a centralpavilion surrounded by subsidiary structures pierced by doors and gates that provided some privacy (seeDungur for an example). The largest of these structures now known is the Ta'akha Maryam, which measured 120 × 80m, though as its pavilion was smaller than others discovered it is likely that others were even larger.[20]
Some clay models of houses survive to give us an idea of what smaller dwellings were like. One depicts a round hut with a conical roof thatched in layers, while another depicts a rectangular house with rectangular doors and windows, a roof supported by beams that end in 'monkey heads', and a parapet and water spout on the roof. Both were found inHawelti. Another depicts a square house with what appear to be layers of pitched thatch forming the roof.[20]
The stelae are perhaps the most identifiable part of the Aksumite architectural legacy. These stone towers served to mark graves and represent a magnificent multi-storied palace. They are decorated with false doors and windows in typical Aksumite design. The largest of these would measure 33 meters high had it not fractured. The stelae have most of their mass out of the ground, but are stabilized by massive underground counter-weights. The stone was often engraved with a pattern or emblem denoting the king's or the noble's rank.[23][24]
For important monuments built in the region, a particular type of granite is used callednepheline syenite. It is fine grained and has also been used in historic monuments like the stelae. These monuments are used to celebrate key figures in Axum history, especially kings or priests. These stelae are also called obelisks, they are located in the Mai Hejja stelae field, where complex sedimentology of the land can be observed. The foundations for the monuments are around 8.5 m below the surface of the Mai Hejja stelae field. Sediments in this area have undergone a lot of weathering over the years, so the surface of this area has undergone a lot of changes. This is part of the reason for the complex stratigraphic history in this site, some previous layers under the surface of the site.[96]
Foreign relations, trade, and economy
Aksum was an important participant in international trade from the first century AD (Periplus of the Erythraean Sea) until circa the later part of the 1st millennium when it succumbed to a long decline against pressures from the various Islamicpowers leagued against it.
Covering parts of what is now northernEthiopia and southern and easternEritrea, Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between theIndian subcontinent and theMediterranean (Rome, laterByzantium), exportingivory, tortoise shell, gold andemeralds, and importingsilk and spices.[61][62] Aksum's access to both the Red Sea and the Upper Nile enabled its strong navy to profit in trade between various African (Nubia), Arabian (Yemen), and Indian states.
The main exports of Aksum were, as would be expected of a state during this time, agricultural products. The land was much more fertile during the time of the Aksumites than now, and their principal crops were grains such as wheat,barley andteff. The people of Aksum also raisedcattle, sheep, and camels. Wild animals were also hunted for things such as ivory and rhinoceros horns. They traded with Roman traders as well as with Egyptian and Persian merchants. The empire was also rich with gold and iron deposits. These metals were valuable to trade, but another mineral was also widely traded:salt. Salt was abundant in Aksum and was traded quite frequently.[90][91]
It benefited from a major transformation of the maritime trading system that linkedthe Roman Empire and India. This change took place around the start of the first century. The older trading system involved coastal sailing and many intermediary ports. The Red Sea was of secondary importance to thePersian Gulf and overland connections to theLevant. Starting around first century, a route from Egypt to India was established, making use of the Red Sea and using monsoon winds to cross theArabian Sea directly tosouthern India. By about 100 AD, the volume of traffic being shipped on this route had eclipsed older routes. Roman demand for goods from southern India increased dramatically, resulting in greater number of large ships sailing down the Red Sea fromRoman Egypt to the Arabian Sea and India.[92][93]
Although excavations have been limited, fourteen Roman coins dating to the second and third centuries have been discovered at Aksumite sites like Matara. This suggests that trade with the Roman Empire existed at least since this period.[97]
14 Roman Coins found in Matara in 2-3rd century[98]
In 525 AD, the Aksumites attempted to take over the Yemen region to gain control over The Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb; one of the most significant trading routes in the medieval world, connecting the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Rulers were inclined to establish a spot of imperialism across the Red Sea in Yemen to completely control the trading vessels that ran down the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. It is located in the maritime choke point between Yemen and Djibouti and Eritrea. Because of the ruler of Yemen's persecution of Christians in 523 AD, Kaleb I, the ruler of Aksum (a Christian region) at the time, responded to the persecutions by attacking the Himyarite king Yūsuf As'ar Yath'ar, known as Dhu Nuwas, a Jewish convert who was persecuting the Christian community of Najran,Yemen in 525 AD, with the help of the Byzantine empire, with whom had ties with his kingdom. Victoriously, the Aksum empire was able to claim the Yemen region, establishing a viceroy in the region and troops to defend it until 570 AD when the Sassanids invaded.
The Kingdom of Aksum was ideally located to take advantage of the new trading situation.Adulis soon became the main port for the export of African goods, such as ivory, incense, gold, slaves, and exotic animals. In order to supply such goods the kings of Aksum worked to develop and expand an inland trading network. A rival, and much older trading network that tapped the same interior region of Africa was that of theKingdom of Kush, which had long supplied Egypt with African goods via theNile corridor. By the first century AD, however, Aksum had gained control over territory previously Kushite. ThePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea explicitly describes how ivory collected in Kushite territory was being exported through the port of Adulis instead of being taken toMeroë, the capital of Kush. During the second and third centuries AD the Kingdom of Aksum continued to expand their control of the southern Red Sea basin. A caravan route to Egypt was established which bypassed the Nile corridor entirely. Aksum succeeded in becoming the principal supplier of African goods to the Roman Empire, not least as a result of the transformed Indian Ocean trading system.[99]
Climate change and trade isolation have also been claimed as large reasons for the decline of the culture.[citation needed] The local subsistence base was substantially augmented by a climatic shift during the first century AD that reinforced the spring rains, extended the rainy season from 3 1/2 to six or seven months, vastly improved the surface and subsurface water supply, doubled the length of the growing season, and created an environment comparable to that of modern central Ethiopia (where two crops can be grown per annum without the aid of irrigation).
Askum was also located on a plateau 2,000 m (6,600 ft) feet above sea level, making its soil fertile and the land good for agriculture. This appears to explain how one of the marginal agricultural environments of Ethiopia was able to support the demographic base that made this far flung commercial empire possible. It may also explain why no Aksumite rural settlement expansion into the moister, more fertile, and naturally productive lands of Begemder or Lasta can be verified during the heyday of Aksumite power.
The Aksumite Empire is portrayed as the main ally ofByzantium in theBelisarius series byDavid Drake andEric Flint published byBaen Books. The series takes place during the reign ofKaleb, who in the series was assassinated by theMalwa in 532 at the Ta'akha Maryam and succeeded by his youngest son Eon bisi Dakuen.
In theElizabeth Wein seriesThe Lion Hunters,Mordred and his family take refuge in Aksum after the fall ofCamelot.Kaleb is the ruler in the first book; he passes his sovereignty onto his son Gebre Meskal, who rules during thePlague of Justinian.
^According to Munro-Hay, "The arrival of Sabaean influences does not represent the beginning of Ethiopian civilisation.... Semiticized Agaw peoples are thought to have migrated from south-eastern Eritrea possibly as early as 2000 BC, bringing their 'proto-Ethiopic' language, ancestor of Geʽez and the other Ethiopian Semitic languages, with them; and these and other groups had already developed specific cultural and linguistic identities by the time any Sabaean influences arrived."[20]
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^Butzer, Karl W. (1981). "Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation".American Antiquity.46 (3). Cambridge University Press:471–495.doi:10.2307/280596.JSTOR280596.S2CID162374800.
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^abDerat, Marie-Laure (2020). "Before the Solomonids: Crisis, Renaissance and the Emergence of the Zagwe Dynasty (Seventh–Thirteenth Centuries)". In Kelly, Samantha (ed.).A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea. Leiden: Brill. p. 34.ISBN978-90-04-41958-2.
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^Selassie, Sergew Hable (1972).Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270. p. 68.
^Uhlig, Siegbert.Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C. p. 173.
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^Taddesse Tamrat,Church and State in Ethiopia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 36.
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