Kidarites | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 320 CE–467 CE | |||||||||||||
 Tamga of the Kidarites | |||||||||||||
Territory of the Kidarite kingdom, and main Asian politiesc. 400 | |||||||||||||
Territory of the Kidarites,c. 400 | |||||||||||||
| Capital | Bactria | ||||||||||||
| Common languages | Bactrian (written) | ||||||||||||
| Religion | Buddhism Hinduism | ||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||
| Kushanshah | |||||||||||||
• fl. 320 | Kidara | ||||||||||||
• fl. 425 | Varhran I | ||||||||||||
• fl. 500 | Kandik | ||||||||||||
| Historical era | Late Antiquity | ||||||||||||
• Established | 320 CE | ||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 467 CE | ||||||||||||
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TheKidarites, orKidara Huns,[1] were a dynasty that ruledBactria and adjoining parts of Central Asia and South Asia in the 4th and 5th centuries. The Kidarites belonged to a complex of peoples known collectively in India as theHuna, and in Europe as theChionites (from theIranian namesXwn/Xyon), and may even be considered as identical to theChionites.[2] The 5th centuryByzantine historianPriscus called them Kidarite Huns, or "Huns who are Kidarites".[3][4] The Huna/Xionite tribes are often linked, albeit controversially, to theHuns who invaded Eastern Europe during a similar period. They are entirely different from theHephthalites, who replaced them about a century later.[4]
The Kidarites were named afterKidara (Chinese: 寄多羅Jiduoluo, ancient pronunciation:Kjie-ta-la)[5][6] one of their main rulers. The Kidarites appear to have been a part of a Huna horde known in Latin sources as the "Kermichiones" (from the IranianKarmir Xyon) or "Red Huna". The Kidarites established the first of four major Xionite/Huna states in Central Asia, followed by theAlchon, theHephthalites and theNezak.
In 360–370 CE, a Kidarite kingdom was established in Central Asian regions previously ruled by theSasanian Empire, replacing theKushano-Sasanians inBactria.[7][8] Thereafter, the Sasanian Empire roughly stopped atMerv.[8] Next, circa 390-410 CE, the Kidarites invaded northwestern India, where they replaced the remnants of theKushan Empire in the area ofPunjab.
A nomadic people, the Kidarites appear to have originated in theAltai Mountains region. On Kidarite coins their rulers are depicted as beardless or clean-shaven – a feature ofAltaic cultures at the time (as opposed, for example, to the Iranian cultures of South Central Asia).[9] They may have beenOghuric speakers originally, as may have been theChionites and theHephthalites, before adopting theBactrian language.[10] The Kidarites were depicted asmounted archers on thereverse of coins.[11] They were also known to practiceartificial cranial deformation.[12]
The Kidarites appear to have been synonymous with theKarmir Xyon ("Red Xionites" or, more controversially, "Red Huns"),[13][14] – a major subdivision of theChionites (Xionites), alongside theSpet Xyon ("White Xionites"). In a recently discovered seal with the image of a ruler similar to those of the Kidarite coins, the ruler named himself in Bactrian "King of the Huns and Great Kushan Shah" (uonano shao o(a)zarko (k)oshanoshao). The discovery was reportedly made inSwat.[15][16]
The name of their eponymous rulerKidara (fl. 350–385) may be cognate with theTurkic wordKidirti meaning "west", suggesting that the Kidarites were originally the westernmost of the Xionites, and the first to migrate from Inner Asia.[17] Chinese sources suggest that when theUar (滑Huá) were driven westward by theLater Zhao state, circa 320, from the area aroundPingyang (平陽; modernLinfen,Shanxi), it put pressure on Xionite-affiliated peoples, such as the Kidarites, to migrate. Another theory is that climate change in the Altai during the 4th century caused various tribes to migrate westward and southward.[17]
Contemporary Chinese and Roman sources suggest that, during the 4th century, the Kidarites began to encroach on the territory ofGreater Khorasan and theKushan Empire – migrating throughTransoxiana intoBactria,[18] where they were initiallyvassals of the Kushans and adopted many elements of Kushano-Bactrian culture. The Kidarites also initially put pressure on theSasanian Empire, but later served as mercenaries in the Sassanian army, under which they fought the Romans in Mesopotamia, led by a chief namedGrumbates (fl. 353–358 CE). Some of the Kidarites apparently became a ruling dynasty of the Kushan Empire, leading to the epithet "Little Kushans".[19][20]
_I_Balkh_mint_Struck_under_Kidarite_kings_Yasada_and_Kirada%2c_circa_CE_340-345.jpg)
) appears to the right of the standing king.Balkh mint.The first evidence are gold coins discovered inBalkh dating from the mid-4th century. TheKushano-Sasanian rulerVarahran during the second phase of his reign, had to introduce the Kidaritetamga () in his coinage minted atBalkh inBactria, circa 340-345.[21] The tamgha replaced thenandipada symbol which had been in use sinceVasudeva I,[21] suggesting that the Kidarites had now taken control, first under their rulerKirada.[22] Then ram horns were added to the effigy of Varahran on his coinage for a brief period under the Kidarite rulerPeroz, and raised ribbons were added around the crown ball under the Kidarite rulerKidara.[23][24][21][22] In effect, Varahran has been described as a "puppet" of the Kidarites.[25] By 365, theKidarite rulerKidara I was placing his name on the coinage of the region, and assumed the title of Kushanshah.[22] In Gandhara too, the Kidarites minted silver coins in the name of Varahran, until Kidara also introduced his own name there.[22]
Archaeological, numismatic, and sigillographic evidence demonstrates the Kidarites ruled a realm just as refined as that of the Sasanians. They swiftly adopted Iranian imperial symbolism and titulature, as demonstrated by a seal; "Lord Ularg, the king of the Huns, the great Kushan-shah, the Samarkandian, of the Afrigan (?) family."[26]
Most other data we currently have on the Kidarite kingdom are from Chinese and Byzantine sources from the middle of the 5th century. The Kidarites were the first Huna to bother India. Indian records note that theHūna had established themselves in modernAfghanistan and theNorth-West Frontier Province by the first half of the 5th century, and the Gupta emperorSkandagupta had repelled aHūna invasion in 455. The Kidarites are the last dynasty to regard themselves (on the legend of their coins) as the inheritors of theKushan empire, which had disappeared as an independent entity two centuries earlier.[original research?]
Ki-da-ra Ku-ṣa-ṇa-ṣa/ Fire altar flanked by attendants.[27] The use of the 3/4 portrait is sometimes attributed to the influence ofthe coinage ofByzantine Empire rulerArcadius (377–408 CE).[28]Around 350, the Sasanian EmperorShapur II (ruled 309 to 379) had to interrupt his conflict with the Romans, and abandon the siege ofNisibis,[17] in order to face nomadic threats in the east: he was attacked in the east byScythianMassagetae and other Central Asian tribes.[30] Around this time,Xionite/Huna tribes, most likely the Kidarites, whose king wasGrumbates, make an appearance as an encroaching threat upon Sasanian territory as well as a menace to theGupta Empire (320–500).[6]
After a prolonged struggle (353–358) they were forced to conclude an alliance, and their kingGrumbates accompaniedShapur II in the war against the Romans, agreeing to enlist his light cavalrymen into the Persian army and accompanying Shapur II. The presence of "Grumbates, king of the Chionitae" and his Xionites with Shapur II during campaigns in the WesternCaspian lands, in the area ofCorduene, is described by the contemporary eyewitnessAmmianus Marcellinus:[31]
Grumbates Chionitarum rex novus aetate quidem media rugosisque membris sed mente quadam grandifica multisque victoriarum insignibus nobilis.
"Grumbates, the new king of the Xionites, while he was middle aged, and his limbs were wrinkled, he was endowed with a mind that acted grandly, and was famous for his many, significant victories."— Ammianus Marcellinus, 18.6.22.[32]
The presence of Grumbates alongside Shapur II is also recorded at the successfulSiege of Amida in 359, in which Grumbates lost his son:[17]
"Grumbates, king of the Chionitae, went boldly up to the walls to effect that mission, with a brave body of guards; and when a skilful reconnoitrer had noticed him coming within shot, he let fly his balista, and struck down his son in the flower of his youth, who was at his father's side, piercing through his breastplate, breast and all; and he was a prince who in stature and beauty was superior to all his comrades. "
— Ammianus Marcellinus, 19.1.7.[33]
Later the alliance fell apart, and by the time ofBahram IV (388–399) the Sasanians had lost numerous battles against the Kidarites.[17] The migrating Kidarites then settled inBactria, where they replaced theKushano-Sasanids, a branch of theSasanids that had displaced the weakeningKushans in the area two centuries before.[7] It is thought that they were in firm possession of the region of Bactria by 360.[17] Since this area corresponds roughly toKushanshahr, the former western territories of theKushans, Kidarite rulerKidara called himself "Kidara King of the Kushans" on his coins.[34]
According toPriscus, theSasanian Empire was forced to pay tribute to the Kidarites, until the rule ofYazdgird II (ruled 438–457), who refused payment.[35]
The Kidarites based their capital inSamarkand, where they were at the center ofCentral Asian trade networks, in close relation with theSogdians.[8] The Kidarites had a powerful administration and raised taxes, rather efficiently managing their territories, in contrast to the image of barbarians bent on destruction given by Persian accounts.[8]
Kafir-kala is an ancient fortress 12 kilometers south of the city center ofSamarkand inUzbekistan, protecting the southern border of the Samarkand oasis.[37] It consists in a central citadel built in mud-bricks and measuring 75 × 75 meters at its base has six towers and is surrounded by a moat, still visible today.[37] Living quarters were located outside the citadel.[37] The citadel was first occupied by the Kidarites in the 4th-5th century, whose coinage and bullae have been found.[38][39]
Ku-shā-ṇa)Kidara (
Ki-da-ra)Kushana (Ku-shā-ṇa). Enthroned goddessArdoxsho on the back.The Kidarites consolidated their power in Northern Afghanistan before conqueringPeshawar and parts of northwest India includingGandhara probably sometime between 390 and 410,[40] around the end of the rule of Gupta EmperorChandragupta II or beginning of the rule ofKumaragupta I.[41] It is probably the rise of the Hephthalites and the defeats against the Sasanians which pushed the Kidarites into northern India.
The Kidarites issued gold coins on the model of Kushan coinage, inscribing their own names but still claiming the Kushan heritage by using the title "Kushan".[42] The volume of Kidarite gold coinage was nevertheless much smaller than that of the Great Kushans, probably owing to a decline of commerce and the loss of major international trade routes.[43]
Coins with the title or nameGadahara seem to be the first coins issued by the invading Kidarites in theKushan realm in India.[44][45] The additional presence of the names of foreign rulers such as theKushano-SassanianPiroz or theGupta EmpireSamudragupta on the coins may suggest some kind of suzerainty at a time when the remnants of Kushan power were torn between these two powers.[44][45] The "Gadahara" issues seem to come chronologically just before the issues of the famous Kidarite rulerKidara.[46][45][42]
It seemsBuddhism was rather unaffected by Kidarite rule, as the religion continued to prosper.[43] The Chinese pilgrimFa-hsien visited the regionc. 400 CE, and described a wealthy Buddhist culture.[43] Some aspects of theBuddhist art of Gandhara seem to have incorporatedZoroastrian elements conveyed by the Kidarites at that time, such as the depiction of fire altars on the bases of numerous Buddhist sculptures.[43]
It has been argued that the spread of Indian culture and religions as far asSogdia corresponded to the rule of the Kidarites over the regions from Sogdia to Gandhara.[5]
Some Buddhist works of art, in a style marking some evolution compared to the art ofGandhara, have been suggested as belonging to the Kidarite period, such as the sculptures ofPaitava.[48]
The Kidarites may have confronted theGupta Empire during the rule ofKumaragupta I (414–c. 455) as the latter recounts some conflicts, although very vaguely, in hisMandsaur inscription.[52] TheBhitari pillar inscription of Skandagupta, inscribed by his sonSkandagupta (c. 455 – c. 467), recalls much more dramatically the near-annihilation of the Gupta Empire, and recovery though military victories against the attacks of thePushyamitras and theHunas.[17] The Kidarites are the only Hunas who could have attacked India at the time, as theHephthalites were still trying to set foot inBactria in the middle of the 5th century.[18] In the Bhitari inscription, Skandagupta clearly mentions conflagrations with the Hunas, even though some portions of the inscription have disappeared:
"(Skandagupta), by whose two arms the earth was shaken, when he, the creator (of a disturbance like that) of a terrible whirlpool, joined in close conflict with theHûnas; . . . . . . among enemies . . . . . . arrows . . . . . . . . . . . . proclaimed . . . . . . . . . . . . just as if it were the roaring of (the river)Ganga, making itself noticed in (their) ears."
Even after these encounters, the Kidarites seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire, particularly central and westernPunjab, until they were displaced by the invasion of theAlchon Huns at the end of the 5th century.[53][17] While they still ruled inGandhara, the Kidarites are known to have sent an embassy to China in 477.[54]
The Huna invasion are said to have seriously damagedIndo-Roman trade relations, which the Gupta Empire had greatly benefited from. The Guptas had been exporting numerous luxury products such assilk, leather goods, fur, iron products,ivory,pearl or pepper from centers such asNasik,Paithan,Pataliputra orBenares etc. The Huna invasion probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with it.[55] These conflicts exhausted theGupta Empire: the gold coinage of Skandagupta is much fewer and of a lesser quality than that of his predecessors.[53]
The Kidarites were cut from their Bactrian nomadic roots by the rise of theHephthalites in the 450s. The Kidarites also seem to have been defeated by the Sasanian emperorPeroz in 467 CE, with Peroz reconqueringBalkh and issuing coinage there as "Peroz King of Kings".[8]
Since the foundation of the Sasanian Empire, its rulers had demonstrated the sovereignty and power of their realm through collection of tribute, particularly from the Romans.[61] However, the Sasanian efforts were disrupted in the early 5th century by the Kidarites, who forcedYazdegerd I (r. 399–420),Bahram V (r. 420–438), and/orYazdegerd II (r. 438–457) to pay them tribute.[61][62] Although this did not trouble the Sasanian treasury, it was nevertheless humiliating.[63] Yazdegerd II eventually refused to pay tribute, which would later be used as thecasus belli of the Kidarites, who declared war against the ruling Sasanian kingPeroz I inc. 464.[64][62] Peroz lacked manpower to fight, and therefore asked for financial aid by the Byzantine Empire, who declined his request.[65] He then offered peace to the king of the Kidarites, Kunkhas, and offered him his sister in marriage, but sent a woman of low status instead. After some time Kunkhas found about Peroz's false promise, and then in turn tried to trick him, by requesting him to send military experts to strengthen his army.[65]
When a group of 300 military experts arrived to the court of Kunkhas at Balaam (possiblyBalkh), they were either killed or disfigured and sent back to Iran, with the information that Kunkhas did this due to Peroz's false promise.[65] Around this time, Peroz allied himself with the Hephthalites or theAlchon Huns ofMehama, the ruler of Kadag in eastern Bactria.[66] With their help, he finally vanquished Kidarites in 466, and brought Bactria briefly under Sasanian control, where he issued gold coins of himself at Balkh.[67][26] The style of the gold coin was largely based on the Kidarite coins, and displayed Peroz wearing his second crown.[22][68] The following year (467), a Sasanian embassy arrived to the Byzantine capital ofConstantinople, where the victory over the Kidarites was announced. The Sasanian embassy sent to theNorthern Wei in 468 may have likewise done the same.[69]
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Although the Kidarites still controlled some places such asGandhara andPunjab, they would never be an issue for the Sasanians again.[7] But in India itself, the Kidarites may also have been losing territory to the Gupta Empire, following the victories ofSkandagupta of 455.[70] This created a power vacuum, which theAlchon Huns were then able to fill, allowing them to reclaim the lost territories of the Kidarites.[70]
There is an astounding synchronism between, on the one hand, the conflicts between the Kidarite Huns and theSasanian Empire and theGupta Empire, and, on the other hand, the campaigns of theHuns underAttila in Europe, leading to their defeat at theCatalaunian Plains in 451.[71] It is almost as if the imperialist empire in the east and west had combined their response to a simultaneous Hunnic threat across Eurasia.[71] In the end, Europe succeeded in repelling the Huns, and their power there quickly vanished, but in the east, both the Sasanian Empire and the Gupta Empire were left much weakened.[71]
A few gold coins of the Kidarites were also found as far asHungary andPoland in Europe, as a result of Asiatic migrations.[68]
Many small Kidarite kingdoms seem to have survived in northwest India, and are known through their coinage. They were particularly present inJammu andKashmir, such as kingVinayaditya, but their coinage was much debased. They were then conquered by theAlchon Huns, sometimes considered as a branch of theHephthalites, during the last quarter of the 5th century.[72][31] TheAlchon Huns followed the Kidarites into India circa 500, invading Indian territory as far asEran andKausambi.
The numismatic evidence as well as the so-called "Hephthalite bowl" fromGandhara, now in theBritish Museum, suggests a period of peaceful coexistence between the Kidarites and the Alchons, as it features two Kidarite noble hunters wearing their characteristic crowns, together with two Alchon hunters and one of the Alchons inside a medallion.[73] At one point, the Kidarites withdrew from Gandhara, and the Alchons took over their mints from the time ofKhingila.[73] By 520, Gandhara was definitely under Hephthalite (Alchon Huns) control, according to Chinese pilgrims.[17]
Anania Shirakatsi states in hisAshkharatsuyts, written in 7th century, that one of theBulgar tribes, known as theKidar were part of the Kidarites. TheKidar took part in Bulgar migrations across theVolga intoEurope.[77]
Remnants of the Kidarites in Eastern Sogdiana may have been associated with thePrincipality of Ushrusana.[78][79] The Kidarites may have survived and possibly established a Kidarite kingdom inUsrushana.[78] This connection may be apparent from the analysis of the coinage,[78] and in the names of some Ushrusana rulers such asKhaydhar ibn Kawus al-Afshin, whose personal name is attested as "Khydhar", and was sometimes written wrongly as "Haydar" in Arabic. In effect, the name "Kydr" was quite popular in Usrushana, and is attested in many contemporary sources.[79] The titleAfshin used by the rulers of Usrushana is also attested in the Kidarite ruler ofSamarkand of the 5th century namedUlarg, who bore the similar title"Afshiyan" (Bactrian script: αφϸιιανο).[80]
| Yosada | c.335 CE[25] |
| Kirada | c.335-345[25] |
| Peroz | c.345-350[25] |
| Kidara | c.350-390[25] |
| Grumbates | c.359 |
| Kungas | ? |
| Brahmi Buddhatala | fl. c. 370 |
| Piro | fl. 388/400 |
| Varhran (II) | fl. c. 425 |
| Goboziko | fl. c. 450 |
| Salanavira | mid 400s |
| Vinayaditya | late 400s |
| Kandik | early 500s |
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The Yueh-chih origin of Kidara is clearly established...
Armenian geographer states that the principal tribes of Bulgars were called Kuphi-Bulgars, Duchi-Bulgars, Oghkhundur-Bulgars, and Kidar-Bulgars, by the last-named of which he meant the Kidarites, a branch of the Huns.
Apart from Gandhara, however, a Kidarite kingdom may have survived in Sogdiana, possibly in the area of Ustrushana.
However, we should not assume that the Kidarite presence in eastern Sogdiana disappeared quickly after their demise in Tokharistan. Indeed, centuries later, in the early ninth century, the local king of Ustrushana and the Abbasid general Al-Afshin bore the personal name of Khydhar...
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