Khosrow II (spelledChosroes II in classical sources;Middle Persian:𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩,romanized: Husrō andKhosrau), commonly known asKhosrow Parviz (New Persian:خسرو پرویز, "Khosrow the Victorious"), is considered to be the last greatSasanianKing of Kings (Shahanshah) ofIran, ruling from 590 to 628, with an interruption of one year.[1]
Khosrow II was the son ofHormizd IV (reigned 579–590), and the grandson ofKhosrow I (reigned 531–579). He was the last king of Iran to have a lengthy reign before theMuslim conquest of Iran, which began five years after his execution. He lost his throne, then recovered it with the help of the Byzantine emperorMaurice, and, a decade later, went on to emulate the feats of theAchaemenids, conquering the richRoman provinces of the Middle East; much of his reign was spent in wars with theByzantine Empire andstruggling against usurpers such asBahram Chobin andVistahm.
Khosrow II begana war against the Byzantines in 602, ostensibly to avenge the murder of his ally Maurice. Persian forces captured much of the Byzantine Empire's territories, earning Khosrow II the epithet "the Victorious". Asiege of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 626 was unsuccessful, andHeraclius, nowallied with Turks, started a risky but successful counterattack deep into Persia's heartland. Dissatisfied with the war, the feudal families of the empire supported a coup in which Khosrow II was deposed and killed by his estranged son Sheroe, who took power asKavad II. This led toa civil war and interregnum in the empire and the reversal of all Sasanian gains in the war against the Byzantines.
In works ofPersian literature such as theFerdowsi'sShahnameh andNizami Ganjavi's (1141–1209)Khosrow and Shirin, a famous tragic romance and a highly elaborated fictional version of Khosrow's life made him one of the greatest heroes of the culture, as much a lover as a king.Khosrow and Shirin tells the story of his love for the originally Aramean princessShirin, who becomes his queen after a lengthy courtship strewn with mishaps and difficulties.
Khosrow is theNew Persian variant of his name used by scholars; inMiddle Persian, his name isHusraw, which derives fromAvestanHaosrauuah ("he who has good fame").[2][3] The name is rendered inGreek asChosroes (Χοσρόης) and inArabic asKisra.[3] He was given the epithetAbarwēz (New PersianParwēz /Parviz), meaning "victorious."[4] His name in combination with the epithetAbarwēz is attested inGeorgian asK‛asre Ambarvez (Pseudo-Juansher, writing around the year 800)[5] and in Armenian asAprouēz Xosrov.[6]
In 590, Hormizd IV had his prominent generalBahram Chobin disgraced and dismissed. Bahram, infuriated by Hormizd's actions,responded by rebelling, and due to his noble status and great military knowledge, was joined by his soldiers and many others. He then appointed a new governor forKhorasan, and afterwards set out for the Sasanian capital ofCtesiphon.[9] The legitimacy of theHouse of Sasan was based on acceptance that the halo of kingship, thexwarrah, was given to the first Sasanian shah,Ardashir I (r. 224–242) and his family following the latter's conquest of theParthian Empire.[10] This was now, however, disputed by Bahram Chobin, thus marking the first time in Sasanian history that a Parthian dynast challenged the legitimacy of the Sasanian family by rebelling.[10][11]
Meanwhile, Hormizd tried to come to terms with his brothers-in-law Vistahm and Vinduyih, who according to theSyriac writerJoshua the Stylite, both "equally hated Hormizd".[1][12] The two brothers overthrew Hormizd in a seemingly bloodless palace revolution.[1][12] They had Hormizd blinded with a red-hot needle, and put Khosrow II on the throne.[1][13] Sometime in the summer of 590, the two brothers then had Hormizd killed, with at least the implicit approval of Khosrow II.[1] Nevertheless, Bahram Chobin continued his march to Ctesiphon, now with the pretext of claiming to avenge Hormizd.[14]
Khosrow then took acarrot and stick attitude, and wrote a message to Bahram Chobin, stressing his rightful claim to the Sasanian kingship: "Khosrow, kings of kings, ruler over the ruling, lord of the peoples, prince of peace, salvation of men, among gods the good and eternally living man, among men the most esteemed god, the highly illustrious, the victor, the one who rises with the sun and who lends the night his eyesight, the one famed through his ancestors, the king who hates, the benefactor who engaged the Sasanians and saved the Iranians their kingship—to Bahram, the general of the Iranians, our friend.... We have also taken over the royal throne in a lawful manner and have upset no Iranian customs.... We have so firmly decided not to take off the diadem that we even expected to rule over other worlds, if this were possible.... If you wish your welfare, think about what is to be done."[15]
Bahram Chobin, however, ignored his warning—a few days later, he reached theNahrawan Canal near Ctesiphon, where he fought Khosrow's men, who were heavily outnumbered, but managed to hold Bahram Chobin's men back in several clashes. However, Khosrow's men eventually began losing their morale, and were in the end defeated by Bahram Chobin's forces. Khosrow, together with his two uncles, his wives, and aretinue of 30 nobles, thereafter fled to Byzantine territory, while Ctesiphon fell to Bahram Chobin.[1] Bahram Chobin declared himself king of kings in the summer of 590, asserting that the first Sasanian kingArdashir I (r. 224–242) had usurped the throne of theArsacids, and that he now was restoring their rule.[9]
Bahram Chobin tried to support his cause with theZoroastrianapocalyptic belief that by the end ofZoroaster's millennium, chaos and destructive wars with the Hephthalites/Huns and the Romans occurs and then a savior would appear. Indeed, the Sasanians had misidentified Zoroaster's era with that of theSeleucids (312 BC), which put Bahram Chobin's life almost at the end of Zoroaster's millennium, he was therefore hailed by many as the promised savior Kay Bahram Varjavand.[9] Bahram was to re-establish theArsacid Empire and commenced a new millennium of dynastic rule. He started minting coins, where he is on the front imitated as an exalted figure, bearded and wearing acrenellation-shaped crown with two crescents of the moon, whilst the reverse shows the traditionalfire altar flanked by two attendants.[9] Regardless, many nobles and priests still chose to side with the inexperienced and less dominant Khosrow II.[9]
In order to get the attention of the Byzantine emperorMaurice (r. 582–602), Khosrow II went toSyria, and sent a message to the Sasanian occupied city ofMartyropolis to stop their resistance against the Byzantines, but with no avail.[16] He then sent a message to Maurice, and requested his help to regain the Sasanian throne, which the Byzantine emperor agreed with; in return, the Byzantines would re-gain sovereignty over the cities ofAmida,Carrhae,Dara andMartyropolis. Furthermore, Iran was required to stop intervening in the affairs ofIberia andArmenia, effectively ceding control ofLazistan to the Byzantines.[1]
Illustration of the forces of Bahram Chobin and Khosrow II fighting.
In 591, Khosrow moved toConstantia and prepared to invade Bahram Chobin's territories in Mesopotamia, while Vistahm and Vinduyih were raising an army inAdurbadagan under the observation of the Byzantine commanderJohn Mystacon, who was also raising an army in Armenia. After some time, Khosrow, along with the Byzantine commander of the south,Comentiolus, invaded Mesopotamia. During this invasion,Nisibis and Martyropolis quickly defected to them,[1] and Bahram Chobin's commander Zatsparham was defeated and killed.[17] One of Bahram Chobin's other commanders, Bryzacius, was captured inMosil and had his nose and ears cut off, and was thereafter sent to Khosrow, where he was killed.[18][19] Khosrow II and the Byzantine generalNarses then penetrated deeper into Bahram's territory, seizing Dara and thenMardin in February, where Khosrow was re-proclaimed king.[17] Shortly after this, Khosrow sent one of his Iranian supporters, Mahbodh, to capture Ctesiphon, which he managed to accomplish.[20]
Map of the Roman-Sasanian frontier during Late Antiquity, including the 591 border that was established between the two empires after Khosrow II's victory over Bahram Chobin.
At the same time a force of 8,000 Iranians under Vistahm and Vinduyih and 12,000 Armenians underMushegh II Mamikonian invaded Adurbadagan.[9] Bahram Chobin tried to disrupt the force by writing a letter to Mushegh II, the letter said: "As for you Armenians who demonstrate an unseasonable loyalty, did not the house of Sasan destroy your land and sovereignty? Why otherwise did your fathers rebel and extricate themselves from their service, fighting up until today for your country?"[21] Bahram Chobin in his letter promised that the Armenians would become partners of the new Iranian empire ruled by a Parthian dynastic family if he accepted his proposal to betray Khosrow II.[22] Mushegh, however, rejected the offer.[22]
Bahram Chobin was then defeated at theBattle of Blarathon, forcing him to flee with 4,000 men eastwards. He marched towardsNishapur, where he defeated a pursuing army as well as an army led by aKarenid nobleman atQumis. Constantly troubled, he crossed theOxus river, where he was received honorably by the Khagan of the Turks, who was most likely Birmudha—the same Turkic prince that Bahram Chobin had defeated and captured a few years earlier during his wars against the Turks.[9][14] Bahram Chobin entered his service, and was appointed as a commander in the army, achieving further military accomplishments there.[9][23] Bahram Chobin became a highly popular figure after saving the Khagan from a conspiracy instigated by the latter's brother Byghu (conceivably an incorrect translation ofyabghu).[14] Khosrow II, however, could not feel safe as long as Bahram Chobin lived, and succeeded in having him assassinated.[9] The assassination was reportedly achieved through distribution of presents and bribes between the members of the Turkic royal family, notably the queen.[23] What remained of Bahram Chobin's supporters went back to northern Iran and joined therebellion of Vistahm (590/1–596 or 594/5–600).[24]
With Khosrow's rule now restored, his aim was to now consolidate his grip over his realm, which included showing tolerance and support to his Christian subjects.[25] His wifeShirin—a Christian fromKhuzestan—was the most influential of his wives, playing an important role in the royal favour that the Mesopotamian Christians enjoyed. She had a church and monastery constructed near the palace in Ctesiphon, which was used to receive a portion of the treasury for the wages of the clergy and their vestments.[1] The ArabLakhmids/Nasrids, a client state located atal-Hira and its surroundings, could now openly convert toNestorian Christianity without angering the Sasanian court.[1]
The Iranians and the Byzantines enjoyed good relations with each other for the first eleven years. This was apparent in their management of the issues that had risen in Armenia. In the 590s, many Armenian nobles and their supporters sought asylum in Iran to avoid being conscripted forMaurice's Balkan campaigns. The open borders between the two empires meant that nobles could freely immigrate to Iran and get promoted. However, when they showed signs of aspiring to fight the Byzantines, the Iranians worked together with the Byzantines to deal with the issue.[citation needed]
After his victory, Khosrow rewarded his uncles with high positions:Vinduyih became treasurer and first minister andVistahm received the post ofspahbed of the East, encompassingTabaristan andKhorasan, which was the traditional homeland of the Ispahbudhan.[12][26] Soon, however, Khosrow changed his intentions: trying to disassociate himself from his father's murder, he decided to execute his uncles. The Sasanian monarchs' traditional mistrust of over-powerful magnates and Khosrow's personal resentment of Vinduyih's patronising manner certainly contributed to this decision. Vinduyih was soon put to death, according to a Syriac source captured while trying to flee to his brother in the East.[12][27]
At the news of his brother's murder, Vistahm rose in open revolt. According toDinawari, Vistahm sent a letter to Khosrow announcing his claim to the throne through his Parthian (Arsacid) heritage: "You are not worthier to rule than I am. Indeed, I am more deserving on account of my descent fromDarius, son of Darius, who foughtAlexander. You Sasanians deceitfully gained superiority over us [the Arsacids] and usurped our right, and treated us with injustice. Your ancestor Sasan was no more than a shepherd." Vistahm's revolt, like Bahrams's shortly before, found support and spread quickly. Local magnates as well as the remnants of Bahram Chobin's armies flocked to him, especially after he married Bahram's sisterGordiya. Vistahm repelled several loyalist efforts to subdue him, and he soon held sway in the entire eastern and northern quadrants of the Iranian realm, a domain stretching from theOxus river to the region ofArdabil in the west. He even campaigned in the east, where he subdued twoHephthalite princes ofTransoxiana, Shaug and Pariowk.[12][28] The date of Vistahm's uprising is uncertain. From his coinage, it is known that his rebellion lasted for seven years. The commonly accepted dates are ca. 590–596, but some scholars like J. D. Howard-Johnston andParvaneh Pourshariati push its outbreak later, in 594/5, to coincide with the Armenian Vahewuni rebellion.[24]
As Vistahm began to threatenMedia, Khosrow sent several armies against his uncle, but failed to achieve a decisive result: Vistahm and his followers retreated to the mountainous region ofGilan, while several Armenian contingents of the royal army rebelled and defected to Vistahm. Finally, Khosrow called upon the services of the ArmenianSmbat Bagratuni, who engaged Vistahm nearQumis. During the battle, Vistahm was murdered by Pariowk at Khosrow's urging (or, according to an alternative account, by his wife Gordiya). Nevertheless, Vistahm's troops managed to repel the royal army at Qumis, and it required another expedition by Smbat in the next year to finally end the rebellion.[12][29]
In 600, Khosrow II executedAl-Nu'man III, King of theLakhmids ofAl-Hira, presumably because of the Arab king's refusal to give him his daughteral-Ḥurqah in marriage and insulting Persian women.[30] Afterwards the central government took over the defense of the western frontiers to the desert, and the buffer state of the Lakhmids vanished. This ultimately facilitated the MuslimCaliphs' invasion and conquest of LowerIraq, less than a decade after Khosrow's death.[31]
Toward the beginning of his reign, Khosrow II had good relations with theByzantines. However, when in 602 EmperorMaurice was murdered by his GeneralPhocas (602–610), who usurped theRoman (Byzantine) throne, Khosrow launched an offensive against Constantinople: ostensibly to avenge Maurice's death, but his aim clearly included the annexation of as muchByzantine territory as was feasible.[1] Khosrow II, along withShahrbaraz and his other best generals, quickly capturedDara andEdessa in 604, and recaptured lost territory in the north, which made the Sasanian–Byzantine borders go back to the pre-591 frontier before Khosrow gave Maurice territory in return for military aid againstBahram Chobin. After having reclaimed lost territory, Khosrow withdrew from the battlefield and handed military operations to Shahrbaraz andShahin Vahmanzadegan. The Sasanian armies then invaded and plunderedSyria andAsia Minor, and in 608 advanced intoChalcedon.
In 610,Heraclius revolted againstPhocas and killed him, crowning himself as Emperor of theByzantine Empire. He then tried to negotiate peace with Khosrow II by sending diplomats to his court. Khosrow, however, rejected their offer and said: "That kingdom belongs to me, and I shall enthrone Maurice's son, Theodosius, as emperor. [As for Heraclius], he went and took the rule without our order and now offers us our own treasure as gifts. But I shall not stop until I have him in my hands." Khosrow then had the diplomats executed.[32]
In 613 and 614, General Shahrbaraz besieged and capturedDamascus andJerusalem, and theTrue Cross was carried away in triumph. Soon afterwards, Shahin marched throughAnatolia, defeating the Byzantines numerous times; he conqueredEgypt in 618. The Byzantines could offer but little resistance, as they were torn apart by internal dissensions, and pressed by theAvars andSlavs, who were invading the Empire from across theDanube River.[33] In 622/3,Rhodes and several other islands in the easternAegean fell to the Sasanians, threatening a naval assault on Constantinople.[34][35][36][37] Such was the despair in Constantinople that Heraclius considered moving the government toCarthage in Africa.[38]
In ca. 606/607, Khosrow recalledSmbat IV Bagratuni fromSasanian Armenia and sent him to repel theTurko-Hephthalites, who had raided as far asSpahan in central Iran. Smbat, with the aid of an Iranian prince named Datoyean, repelled the Turko-Hephthalites from Iran, and plundered their domains ineastern Khorasan, where Smbat is said to have killed their king in single combat.[39] Khosrow then gave Smbat the honorific titleKhosrow Shun ("the Joy or Satisfaction of Khosrow"),[39] while his sonVaraztirots II Bagratuni received the honorific nameJavitean Khosrow ("Eternal Khosrow").[39][40]
He [Khosrow] ordered that a huge elephant be adorned and brought to the chamber. He commanded that [Smbat's son] Varaztirots' (who was called Javitean Khosrow by the king), be seated atop [the elephant]. And he ordered treasures scattered on the crowd. He wrote [to Smbat] a hrovartak [expressing] great satisfaction and summoned him to court with great honor and pomp. [Smbat] died in the 28th year of [Khosrow's] reign [618–19].[41]
Sassanid KingKhosrau II being vanquished by the Byzantine EmperorHeraclius, from a plaque on a 12th-century French cross. This is only allegorical, as Khosrau II never actually submitted in person to Heraclius.
In 622, despite the major progress the Sasanians were making in the area of theAegean Sea, the Byzantine EmperorHeraclius was able to take the field with a powerful force. In 624, he advanced into northernAdurbadagan, where he was welcomed byFarrukh Hormizd and his sonRostam Farrokhzad who had rebelled against Khosrow.[42] Heraclius then began sacking several cities and temples, including theAdur Gushnasp temple.[33]
In 626 Heraclius capturedLazistan (Colchis). Later that same year,Shahrbaraz advanced onChalcedon on theBosphoros and attempted to captureConstantinople with the help ofAvar andSlavic allies. In thissiege of Constantinople in 626, the combined Sassanid, Slavic and Avar forces failed to capture the Byzantine capital city. The Avars did not have the patience or technology to conquer the city. On top of that, the Iranians, who weresiege warfare experts, were unable to transport their troops and equipment to the other side of theBosphorus where their Slavic and Avar allies were located, due to heavy guarding of the strait by theByzantine navy. Furthermore, thewalls of Constantinople were easily defended against the siege towers and engines. Another reason was that the Persians and Slavs did not have a strong enough navy to skirt the sea walls and establish a channel of communication. The lack of supplies for the Avars eventually caused them to abandon the siege.[43] As this maneuver failed, Shahrbaraz' forces were defeated, and he withdrew his army fromAnatolia later in 628.
Following theThird Perso-Turkic War in 627, Heraclius defeated the Iranian army at theBattle of Nineveh and advanced towardsCtesiphon. Khosrow II fled from his favorite residence,Dastagird (near Ctesiphon), without offering resistance.[33] Heraclius then capturedDastagird and plundered it.
17th-centuryShahnameh illustration of Khosrow II's arrest
After the capture of Dastagird, the son of Khosrow, Sheroe, was released by the feudal families of theSasanian Empire, which included theIspahbudhanspahbedFarrukh Hormizd and his two sonsRostam Farrokhzad andFarrukhzad.Shahrbaraz of theMihran family, the Armenian faction represented byVaraztirots II Bagratuni, and finallyKanadbak of theKanārangīyān family.[44] On the night of 25 February, the night-watch of the Sasanian capital ofCtesiphon, which would usually shout the name of the reigning shah, shouted the name of Sheroe instead, which indicated acoup d'état was taking place.[45] Sheroe, with Aspad Gushnasp leading his army, captured Ctesiphon and imprisoned Khosrow II in the house of a certain Mehr-Sepand (also known as Maraspand). Sheroe, who had now assumed the dynastic name of Kavad II, then ordered Aspad Gushnasp to lead the charge of accusations against the deposed shah. Khosrow, however, dismissed all accusations one by one.[46]
Kavad shortly proceeded to have all his brothers and half-brothers executed, including the heir Mardanshah, who was Khosrow's favourite son. The murder of all his brothers, "all well-educated, valiant, and chivalrous men",[7] stripped the Sasanian dynasty of a future competent ruler, and has been described as a "mad rampage" and "reckless".[47] Three days later he orderedMihr Hormozd to execute Khosrow. However, after the regicide of his father, Kavad also proceeded to have Mihr Hormozd killed.[48] Khosrow's daughtersBoran andAzarmidokht reportedly criticized and scolded Kavad for his barbaric actions, which made him filled with remorse.[49] With the support of the Iranian nobles, Kavad then made peace with the Byzantine emperorHeraclius, which made the Byzantines regain all their lost territories, their captured soldiers, awar indemnity, along with theTrue Cross and other relics that were lost in Jerusalem in 614.[50][51]
Due to Kavad's actions, his reign is seen as a turning point in Sasanian history, and has been argued by some scholars as playing a key role in the fall of the Sasanian Empire.[47] The overthrow and death of Khosrow culminated in achaotic civil war, with the most powerful members of the nobility gaining full autonomy and starting to create their own government. The hostilities between the Persian (Parsig) andParthian (Pahlav) noble-families were also resumed, which split up the wealth of the nation.[7] The civil war finally ended when Khosrow's eight year old grandson,Yazdegerd III, ascended the throne.[52] The young king, however, inherited a disintegrating empire, which was dealt its last blow in 651 during theArab conquest of Iran.[53]
Khosrow II, like all other Sasanian rulers, was an adherent of Zoroastrianism.[54] Since the 5th century, the Sasanian monarchs had been made aware of the significance of the religious minorities in the realm, and as a result tried to integrate them into a structure of administration where, according to legal principles, all would be treated straightforwardly asmard /zan ī šahr, i.e. "man/woman [citizen] of the country".Jews and Christians (but not the persecutedManichaeans) had accepted the concept ofEranshahr /Iran (which had once been inextricable from Zoroastrianism) and considered themselves part of it.[55]
During his reign there was constant conflict betweenMonophysite andNestorian Christians. Khosrow favored the Monophysites, and ordered all his subjects to adhere to Monophysitism, perhaps under the influence of Shirin and the royal physicianGabriel of Sinjar, who both supported this faith. Khosrow also dispensed money or gifts to Christian shrines.[56] Khosrow's great tolerance to Christianity and friendship with the Christian Byzantines even made some Armenian writers think that Khosrow was a Christian.[56] His positive policy toward Christians (which, however, was probably politically motivated) made him unpopular with the Zoroastrian priests, and also made Christianity greatly spread around the Sasanian Empire.[57] In 591, at the beginning of his reign, Byzantine-Sasanian negotiations resulted in an edict of toleration, based on the understanding that proselytization would be banned. According toNina Garsoïan, Khosrow "returned to the normal pattern of alternate toleration and repression" of Christians after the death of his ally Maurice in 602. While individual Christians continued to enjoy his favor, a number of prominent Christian officials and prelates were put to death during this period.[58] During Khosrow's war with the Byzantines, Christian elites and organizations were incorporated into the Sasanian system, as part of his attempt to absorb the Byzantine realm into his expanded empire.[59] The condition of the Christian nobility reached its pinnacle under Khosrow.[60]Mushegh II Mamikonian, a prominent Armeniannakharar, is the first and only Christian nobleman that is praised by courtly historiographers, due to his rejection of the enticements of Bahram Chobin. His decision to choose Khosrow over his native Armenia, gained him a place in theShahnameh, the national epic of Iran.[60]Smbat IV Bagratuni likewise led an illustrious career under Khosrow, rising to the office of frontier commander ofGurgan, possibly the most vital and contested area of the Sasanian realm. As a reward for his accomplishments in the east, Smbat was appointed the leader of the military jurisdiction in the Caucasus. Furthermore, his aristocratic house – theBagratunis – was made the pillar of Sasanian authority in the area.[60]
Khosrow also paid attention to the Zoroastrians, and had variousfire temples constructed. However, this did not help the Zoroastrian church, which was in a heavy decline during his reign. According toRichard N. Frye, the Zoroastrian church under Khosrow "was noted for its devotion to luxury more than its devotion to thought."[61]
Khosrow II's reign was considered agolden age inmusic. Before Khosrow II there were many other Sasanian kings that showed particular interest in music, likeKhosrow I,Bahram Gur, and evenArdashir I. Notable musicians during the reign of Khosrow II wereBarbad (Khosrow's favorite court musician),Bamshad,Sarkash, andNagisa.
A divine investiture scene, with the Zoroastrian divinitiesAhura Mazda andAnahita each giving Khosrow II adiadem.
Khosrow restored the practice of erecting rock reliefs, after an absence of nearly three centuries, the last one being erected underShapur III (r. 383–388).[62] AtTaq-e Bostan, Khosrow mimicked and magnified the rock relief of Shapur III.[62] His relief, known as the "GreatAyvan", is in abarrel vault carved in a cliff. The ayvan is split into an upper and lower section; the upper section depicts a divine investiture scene, with the Zoroastrian divinitiesAhura Mazda andAnahita each giving Khosrow adiadem.[62] The lower section depicts Khosrow II on horseback, wearing full body armor, whilst holding a lance and shield. His head is encircled by ahalo, which according to Howard-Johnston, is most likely a representation of hisxwarrah, i.e. kingly glory.[1][62] On the left side panel, a boar hunt scene is depicted, portraying Khosrow on a boat whilst aiming a bow. On the right, there is a deer hunt scene. The relief, however, is unfinished, probably due to Khosrow's setback in the later stages of the war and his eventual downfall.[1]
The relief stone of Khosrow II during the coronation
Equestrian statue of Khosrow II.
Rock relief on the left side panel, depicting a boar hunt.
Drawing of an unfinished rock relief on the right side panel, depicting a deer hunt.
This folio from Walters manuscript W.659 depicts Mount Bistun and the carvings of Khusraw, Shirin, and Farhad.
Khosrow, during his second reign, added theideogram GDH, meaningxwarrah ("royal splendor") on his coins. He combined this together with the wordabzōt ("he has increased"), making the full inscription thus read as: "Khosrow, he has increased the royal splendor" (Khūsrōkhwarrah abzōt).[63] The title ofKing of Kings–missing since the reign ofPeroz I (r. 459–484)–was also restored on his coins.[63] According to Shayegan, Khosrow's adoption of the title was "undoubtedly a consequence of his Byzantine policy," and was signifying a resurrection of the ancientAchaemenid Empire.[64] His two successors,Kavad II (r. 628–628) andArdashir III (r. 628–630), refrained from using the title, seemingly in order distance themselves from him.[63]
Islamic tradition tells a story in which Khosrow II (inArabic:كسرىKisra) was a Persian king to whomMuhammad had sent a messenger,Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi, along with a letter in which Khosrow was asked to preach the religion of Islam.[65][66] The account as transmitted by Muslim tradition reads:
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Kisra, the great (leader/head) of the Persians. Peace be upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in Allah and in His Prophet and testifies that there is no god but Allah and that He has no partner, and who believes that Muhammad is His servant and Prophet. Under the Command of Allah, I invite you to Him. He has sent me for the guidance of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath and may present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that you may remain safe (in this life and the next). And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be responsible for the sins of theMagi.[66][67]
Islamic tradition further states that Khosrow II tore up Muhammad's letter[68] saying, "A pitiful slave among my subjects dares write his name before mine"[69] and commandedBadhan, his vassal ruler ofYemen, to dispatch two valiant men to identify, seize and bring this man fromHijaz (Muhammad) to him. When Abdullah ibn Hudhafah as-Sahmi told Muhammad how Khosrow had torn his letter to pieces, Muhammad promised the destruction of Khosrow II stating, "Even so, Allah shall destroy his kingdom."[68] Later, Badhan's men arrived inMedina and talked to Muhammad, ordering him to accompany them back to Khosrow II. Muhammad reportedly changed the subject, made it obvious he did not like their appearance, and responded by asking why they shave their beards and leave their mustaches to grow and be that large. When they said that's what their god orders them to do, he said his god orders him to cut his mustache and grow his beard. After he took control of the conversation like that, he went back on-topic and asked them to come back to him the next day. When they did, he informed them that Khosrow II had been killed by his son. Badhan's men responded angrily, threatening Muhammad to tell Badhan what he is saying about Khosrow II. To that, he responded by encouraging them to write to Badhan and to also tell him that Islam and its power will reach all that Khosrow II has ever ruled over. A few days later, Badhan received confirmation from Persia that Khosrow II was dead. As a consequence, he is said to have accepted Islam, and Muhammad kept him as a ruler over his people.[70]
Of Khosrow's wives, the ChristianShirin played the most prominent public role. She bore Khosrow a son,Mardanshah, and unsuccessfully tried to secure the succession for him. Another one of Khosrow's wives wasMaria, which some sources depict as the daughter of theByzantine emperorMaurice.[1] However, this identification is generally not accepted by scholars. Maria may have been a Greek girl in Khosrow's harem, later remembered as a Byzantine princess.[74] Maria was the mother of Khosrow's successorKavad II.[1] The 9th-century historianDinawari claims that Khosrow marriedGordiya, the sister ofBahram Chobin, after the latter's death, and that Gordiya bore him a son namedJavanshir. Javanshir is supposed to have ruled before Khosrow's daughterBorandukht, but he is not represented in Sasanian coinage.[75] Khosrow also had other children: daughters Borandukht andAzarmidokht and sonsShahriyar andFarrukhzad Khosrow V. All these persons except Shahriyar would later become the monarch of Iran during theSasanian civil war of 628–632. Khosrow had a sister who was married to the SasanianspahbedShahrbaraz and bore himShapur-i Shahrvaraz. She was called Mihran because she had married into theHouse of Mihran.[76]
Edward Walford, translator,The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594, 1846. Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing,ISBN978-1-889758-88-6.[1] – a primary source containing detailed information about the early reign of Khosrow II and his relationship with the Romans.
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