| Kharavela | |
|---|---|
| Chakravartin[1] Kalingadhipati Maharaja | |
| Emperor of Kalinga | |
| Tenure | 1st century BCE |
| Predecessor | possibly Vriddharaja (a.k.a. Vudharaja) |
| Successor | Kudepasiri |
| Born | c. 1st century BCE Kalinga,(Present dayOdisha,India) |
| Spouse | Sindhula of Sampath[2] |
| Issue | Kudepasiri |
| Dynasty | Mahameghavahana |
| Religion | Jainism |
Kharavela[a] was theemperor of Kalinga (present-day eastern coast state Odisha and some peripheriesIndia) in the 2nd or 1st century BC. The primary source for Kharavela is his rock-cutHathigumpha inscription. The inscription is undated, only four of its 17 lines are completely legible, others unclear, variously interpreted and disputed by scholars. The inscription is written inBrahmi script withJainism-related phrases recites a year by year record of his reign. He was a follower ofJainism.[3]
Kharavela is known for his military campaigns in Northern and Southern India. He has led victorious expeditions againstMagadha,Satavahana and Tamil confederacy (lead byPandya dynasty) and other kingdoms such as Rashtrikas and Bhojakas of Berar and Maharastra regions during his reign.[4][5]
He was not only a great military general but also a good administrator. He undertook public works for the benefit of his people and in order to please them he remitted taxes and provided them with the occasions for merrymakings.[4] TheHathigumpha inscription also mentions his public works such as repairing of the gates and buildings of his capital Kalinganagara, which was destroyed by a storm. These repairs and some other public works in the same year cost him thirty-five hundred thousand coins.[5]
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The first line of the Hathigumpha inscription calls Kharavela "Chetaraja-vasa-vadhanena" (चेतराज वस वधनेन, "the one who extended the family of the Cheta King").[6]R. D. Banerji andD. C. Sircar interpreted "Cheti" (चेति) to be referring to a dynasty from which Kharavela descended, namelyChedimahajanapada. According to Sahu, this is incorrect and an artifact of a crack in the stone. The "Chetaraja", states Sahu, probably refers to Kharavela's father and his immediate predecessor.[7]: 18
The Hathigumpha inscription also contains a word that has been interpreted asAira orAila. According to a small inscription found in the Mancapuri Cave, Kharavela's successor Kudepasiri also styled himself asAira Maharaja Kalingadhipati Mahameghavahana (Devanagari: ऐर महाराजा कलिंगाधिपतिना महामेघवाहन). Early readings of that inscription by scholars such asJames Prinsep and R. L. Mitra interpretedAira as the name of the king in the Hathigumpha inscription. Indraji's work corrected this error, and established that the king mentioned in the Hathugumpha inscription was Kharavela and that he was a descendant ofMahameghavahana.[8] It does not directly mention the relationship between Mahameghavahana and Kharavela, or the number of kings between them.[9] Indraji interpreted the inscription to create a hypothetical family tree in 1885,[8] but this is largely discredited.
The wordAira orAila was then re-interpreted, byBarua[3] and Sahu[10] to be thePrakrit form of the Sanskrit wordArya ("noble"). Jayaswal and Banerji interpret the same word to be referring to theAila dynasty, the mythicalPururavas dynasty mentioned in Hindu and Jain texts; Kharavela's Mahameghavahana family might have claimed descent from this Pururavas dynasty.[11] Scholars such as Sircar and Sharma, based on later discoveredGuntupalli inscriptions, state that Kharavela was one of the ancient Mahameghavahana dynasty king from Kalinga.[12]
Kharavela, a ruler of the third generation of the Cheti dynasty of Kalinga, was carefully raised from his early years to develop the qualities required of a king. TheHathigumpha Inscription, through its panegyrist, portrays him as a person endowed with many good qualities of mind and character, and his training was directed toward shaping him into a capable conqueror and administrator. The activities and games of his childhood were probably designed to prepare him for his future royal duties. In addition, he was instructed in Writing (Lekha), Coinage (Rupa), Accountancy (Ganana), Law (Vyavahara), and administrative procedures (Vidhi), which made him skilled in matters of statecraft. The study of Lekha in his education went beyond simple writing and included the practice of royal correspondence and official administration.[13][14]
Kharavela in the second reginal year he dispatched a large army of elephantry, cavalry, infantry and chariots towards the western regions without even caring forSatakarni, who apparently ruled the country to the west of Kalinga. In the course of this expedition, the Kalinga armies are further said to have reached the banks of the Krishnabena river (Krishna) where the city called Asikanagara was threatened.
Kharavela in the 4th reginal year invaded the invincible Vidyadhara territory that had been the military recruiting ground of the former kings of Kalinga.[15] Dr. B.M. Barua, thinks that the Vidyadharas were an aboriginal people noted for their magical skill and lived in Arkatpur (modern Arkad orArcot in Madras Pradesh)[16]. In the Jaina literature, the Vidyadharas are known as a tribal people residing in the Vindhya mountains. NK Sahu identifies it with the eighteen forest kingdoms or Sarvatavika Rajya of the Allahabad Inscription ofSamudragupta as well as the eighteen Vidyadhara settlements of the Jaina work.[17]
In the fourth year of his reign, an expedition was launched against the Bhojakas the ruling chiefs ofBerar, and the Rathikas of the adjoining Marathi-speaking districts of East Khandesh and Ahmednagar, who were defeated and compelled to dohomage[18]. It may be pointed out that Maharathi-Tranakairo, who was the father-in-law ofSatakarni I, was probably the Chief of the Rathikas and either he or his successor had to sustain the defeat.[19] Prof EJ Rapson, on the other hand, held that the Rashtrikas belonged to the Maratha country and the Bhojakas to the Berar region, but both were feudatories of the Andhra kings of Pratishthana.[20]
The geographical location of the Rathikas and Bhojakas, as well as, the relationship between the Satavahanas and the Rathikas clearly indicate that Kharavela war with the Rathikas and Bhojakas could not have been possible without an encounter against the Satavahana power. As a consequence of this victory, Kharavela’s suzerainty could spread over the Deccan from sea to sea.[21]
In the eighth year of his reign Kharavela undertook his first expedition against the North.The strong fort of the Gorathagiri, one of the hill fortresses guarding Rajagrha, was demolished and the city was put into great trouble. His armies marched past theBarabar hills in theGaya district, destroying its fortifications, and laid siege to the city ofRajagriha.[18] The news of these exploits of Kharavela caused so much terror in the heart of a Yavana king Dimata, that he fled to Mathura.[22] The yavanas were apparently, purged out ofMathura which was then a famous stronghold of Jainism. Kharavela diverted the plans to invadeMagadha as immediate attention was required towards the North-west, as a result of which Magadha was spared that year[23]
Kharavela caused so much terror in the heart of a Yavana king that he fled away to Mathura. The Yavana ruler, whose name is some-times doubtfully read as Dimita or Dimata (? Demetrius), was probably a laterIndo-Greek ruler of the eastern Punjab.[24]
Brihaspatimitra ruled overAnga,Magadha,Vatsa (Kausambi) andPanchala (Ahichhatra) regions.[5] He seems to have been related to theMitra kings of Magadha whose records and coins have been found in the Gaya District. To avenge the humiliation of Kalinga during the time of the Nandas and the Mauryas, Kharavela carried away much booty from Anga and Magadha together with certain Jain images originally taken away by aNanda king from Kalinga.[24]
After returning from the North, Kharavela faced a formidable challenge from the confederated Tamil States of the South. This alliance comprised the states of theCholas,Pandyas, Satyaputras,Keralaputras, and the island of CeylonTamraparni), which, according to inscriptions, had existed for 130 years prior to Kharavela’s time. Historical records and the Edicts ofAshoka indicate that these territories were never subdued byMahapadmananda orChandragupta Maurya and remained independent southern neighbors of the Maurya Empire.[25]
The Hathigumpha Inscription claims that Kharavela had ploughed down with a plough of asses of the city of Pithuihda, founded by a former king (puram rajanivesitath Plthuiham). Pithumda is taken to be the same asPtolemy’s Pitundra, the metropolis, in the land of the Maisoloi in the upper part of theCoromandel coast[26]. The Pandya king, apparently the league’s leader, surrendered and was compelled to offer large quantities of pearls, jewels, and precious stones to Kalinganagara as tribute.[27][28][29]
The Hathigumpha inscription begins with a variation of the salute toarihants andsiddhas. This is similar to the JainPancha-Namaskara Mantra, in which three more entities are invoked in addition to the arihants and siddhas.[30] Other parts of the Hathigumpha inscription, as well as the minor inscriptions found at Udayagiri from around 1st-century BCE use Jain phrases. He is therefore generally called a Jain king.[31] He brought back Jina idol fromMathura which was taken by Nanda king.[32]
Kharavela left an inscription atHathigumpha, in which he records that he marched into Magadha, defeated it, and made the king of Pāṭaliputra, identified as the last Maurya ruler, bow to him. This inscription is deliberately placed at the Hātigumphā cave. Significantly, if one stands before this inscription and turns around,Aśoka's own inscription is visible on the opposite hill. This placement is often interpreted as symbolic: Kharavela appears to be directly addressing Aśoka by proclaiming that he destroyed the Mauryan power in Magadha, subdued Aśoka's descendants at Pāṭaliputra, and brought back the Jain idol (likely ofRishabhanatha) that, according to the inscription, had earlier been taken away. The positioning of the inscriptions thus serves as a political and religious statement asserting Kharavela's victory and the restoration of Jain ideals.[33][34] Although Kharavela was aJain, as proven by the inscription, it also records that he supported other religious traditions (sava-pāsanḍa pūjako) and undertook repairs of temples dedicated to various deities (sava-de[vāya]tana-sakāra-kārako).[35][36] it also mentions the wordAhimsa (non-violence) repeatedly[37]
According to the Hathigumpha inscription, Kharavela spent his first 24 years on education and sports, a period when he mastered the fields of writing, coinage, accounting, administration and procedures of law.[38] He was the prince to the throne (yuvaraja) at 16, and crowned King of Kalinga at age 24. TheHathigumpha inscription details his first 13 years of his reign. Some notable aspects of this reign includes:
Kulke and Rothermund state Kharavela's empire state that the history of ancient India is unclear including the times after Ashoka and Kharavela. Given the lack of major inscriptions by his successors, they surmise that the Kharavela empire likely disintegrated soon after his death.[2] A little is known about the next two generations of kings - Vakradeva (a.k.a. Kudepasiri or Vakadepa) and Vadukha - but through the minor inscriptions at Udayagiri.[2] Kharavela was succeeded by Sada dynasty kings.[52] Siri Sada is mentioned as a Mahameghavahana king in an inscription atGuntupalli.[52]
Kharavela's inscription depict him as a man with ruddy and handsome body and had lived a youthful life for 25 years, a keen learner having who received a thorough education and had mastered writing, coinage, accountancy, administration and legal procedures.[53] He is one of the very few early Indian monarchs who proudly proclaim to have been systematically educated in their official inscription.[54] The Hathigumpha inscription had portrayed him as a compassionate ruler who made a settlement of a hundred and thousands of masons, giving them exemption from land revenue. It also mentions that he donated royal maintenances, China clothes (silks) and white clothes to the Jain monks and made temples and caves for arahats and sramanas.[55]
The inscription states that Kharavela was a great patron of art and music and well versed in the science of Gandharvas. He held festivities and assemblies and entertains his capital with exhibition of dapa, dancing, singing and instrumental music.[56]
The inscription praises Kharavela's might and his patronage to all temples, stating that he repaired all the temples and whose chariot and army are irresistible.
Kharavela's inscriptions call him aKalinga-Chakravartin (Emperor of Kalinga).[1] He was one of Kalinga's strongest rulers.[9][57] The inscription states that after his imperial coronation he repaired the gates, walls and forts of the capital city which had been damaged by storm.[55]
The kingdom ofKalinga was invaded byAshoka c. 262-261 BCE. The Hathigumpha inscription implies that Kalinga regained its independence from theMaurya Empire sometime after Ashoka's death, and Kharavela was born in an independentKalinga.[9]
In 1885, the colonial era epigraphistBhagwan Lal Indraji read the 16th line of the Hathigumpha inscription as a reference toMaurya kala and 165th year after this new timeline, which he called the Mauryan era. Indraji concluded that Kharavela was born in 127 BCE and became king in 103 BCE.[8] Indraji's interpretations were questioned by scholars and has been largely rejected.[54][43][58]
According to Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya, the 16th line does not mentionMaurya kala ("Maurya era") but readsMukhya kala ("the main era"). Chattopadhyaya relies on the description of Kharavela's fifth regnal year in the Hathigumpha inscription, which he says implies that Kharavela flourishedti-vasa-sata years after the Nandaraja.Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri identifies Nandaraja withMahapadma Nanda or one of his sons. The expressionti-vasa-sata can mean 103 or 300 years; Chattopadhyaya does not consider 103 plausible, since it would contradict Ashoka's records. Based on this, he places Kharavela in the second half of the first century BCE or the first half of the first century CE.[41]
Depending on the variant readings, different dates continue to be published in post-colonial era texts.Alain Daniélou, for example, places Kharavela between 180 BCE and 130 BCE, identifying him as a contemporary ofSatakarni andPushyamitra Shunga.[40] According to Rama Shankar Tripathi, Kharavela reigned during the third quarter of the first century BCE.[43] Many other scholars, such as D.C. Sircar and Walter Spink, date Kharavela and the Hathigumpha inscription in the 1st-century BCE to early 1st-century CE.[55][56]
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