 Kerupuk, also known askeropok orkropek, stored in air-tight tin containers to preserve freshness and crispness | |
| Alternative names | Kerupuk |
|---|---|
| Course | Snack |
| Place of origin | Maritime Southeast Asia[1][2][3][4] |
| Region or state | Indonesia,Malaysia, thePhilippines, southernThailand,Brunei andSingapore |
| Serving temperature | Room temperature |
| Main ingredients | Starch, animal proteins, vegetables. |
| Variations | Different variations according to ingredients |
Krupuk (Indonesian pronunciation:[/kruˈpʊk/]), also known askeropok (Malay pronunciation:[/kəˈro.poʔ/]) andkropek (Filipino pronunciation:[/ˈkro.pɛk/]) refers to traditionaldeep-fried crackers made fromstarch combined with flavouring ingredients such asprawn,fish or otherseafood. The food has long-standing traditions throughoutmaritime Southeast Asia and neighbouring coastal regions, particularly inIndonesia,Malaysia, thePhilippines, southernThailand,Brunei andSingapore.
Krupuk,keropok andkropek encompasses numerous regional varieties, ranging fromcassava- orrice-based forms to those made with seafood or animal products such as cattle skin. These varieties are widely consumed assnacks, served alongside main dishes, or sold as regional specialities. Certain forms hold strong associations with local cuisines, includingkrupuk kulit inJava andSumatra,keropok lekor inMalay Peninsula andamplang inBorneo.
Variants are also found internationally. In theNetherlands the food is known askroepoek, reflecting historical ties withIndonesia, while inSuriname it forms part ofJavanese-Surinamese cuisine. Inglobal markets it is often sold as “prawn crackers” or “fish crackers.” Comparable preparations exist inVietnam (Vietnamese:bánh phồng tôm;Lao:ແຄບໝູ), southernChina (Chinese:虾片;pinyin:xiāpiàn) and other coastal areas of Asia, where drying and frying provided a practical method of preserving food resources.
Early forms of such foods in the region are thought to have been made fromanimal skin, which could be preserved, dried and laterfried for consumption. AcrossSoutheast Asia, buffalo, cow and pig skins were traditionally kept for non-culinary purposes such asleatherwork ordrum-making, while frying orroasting the skin as food represented a way of maximising the use ofslaughtered animals in peasant or village settings where little was wasted. The technique of drying and rendering skin before frying, which causes it to puff when cooked, is believed to have developed independently in different regions, including in Thailand and Indonesia.[5]
In Indonesia, historical sources suggest thatkrupuk was already known by the 9th or 10th century. The Batu Pura inscription mentionskrupuk rambak, a cracker made from cow or buffalo skin that survives today askrupuk kulit, often served with theJavanese dish krechek.[2] According to A. G. Pringgodigdo in theEnsiklopedi Umum, its preparation involved cleaning and boiling hides before slicing and drying them for later use. Similar skin-based crackers also appear in other regional traditions, such as theSundanesedorokdok and theMinangkabaukarupuak jangek.
Alongside these skin-based varieties,starch-based crackers developed as a distinct preparation method and eventually became the predominant form across Southeast Asia. Their emergence is often linked to broader food practices inAsia, whereroot crops,grains and seafood formed important components of the diet.[4][6]Mixing starch with ingredients such as fish, shrimp ortubers and then drying the mixture provided a practical way to preserve and extend food resources, and similar techniques appear to have arisen independently in multiple parts of maritime and coastal Southeast Asia.
In theMekong Delta ofVietnam, bánh phồng tôm developed in areas whererice cultivation andshrimp farming were central to local livelihoods, with production in Sa Đéc becoming particularly prominent during the 19th-centuryNguyễn dynasty. Through trade along theSouth China Sea, these prawn crackers circulated widely and showed close similarities to varieties found elsewhere in maritime Southeast Asia. Comparable preparations were also made insouthern China, particularly inFujian andGuangdong, whereshrimp paste andrice flour were combined to produce xiāpiàn. Maritime exchange, especially throughHokkien andTeochew merchants, facilitated the spread of such crackers into Southeast Asia, where they were adapted to local tastes and ingredients.[6]
In theMalay Peninsula, local tradition traces the origin ofkeropok udang (prawn crackers) to the 16th century, when leftover prawn heads from a feast were used to prepare the first crackers. By the 19th century,keropok was documented by theMalay writerAbdul Kadir Munsyi, who noted its production in theKuantan region.[2][4] The tradition also extended to thePhilippines, where a related preparation known askropeck is believed to have been introduced through early contact with Malay communities prior toSpanish colonisation. Made from shrimp or fish paste combined with flour and dried before frying, it became a familiar snack and remains widely consumed.[3]
The development ofkeropok reflects a broader trend in which local variations ofkrupuk evolved across Southeast Asia, responding to the availability ofcassava,sago, shrimp, fish and other protein sources. This diversity gave rise to numerous regional varieties throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, Luzon, the Visayas and beyond, with established centres of trade andcultural exchange enabling the spread of ingredients and culinary techniques.
Most varieties of pre-packaged rawkrupuk requiresun-drying before being deep-fried to achieve their characteristic crisp texture. They are typically cooked in awok with hot oil, although alternative methods exist; for example,microwaving rawkrupuk for about one minute at medium power (~700 W) can produce a lower-fat version. In its uncooked form,krupuk is small, hard, and darker in colour compared to its puffed, cooked state.[7]
Krupuk and kripik may be eaten on their own as snacks or used as accompaniments to enhance the texture of various dishes. Certain types are commonly paired with preparations such asgado-gado,karedok,rujak,asinan,bubur ayam and certain varieties ofsoto.[8]Krupuk is also the primary ingredient inseblak, a savoury and spicy preparation in which softenedkrupuk is stir-fried with meat or seafood in a chilli-based sauce.
Indonesia has a wide variety ofkrupuk, with types found in almostevery region. The most common are prepared from starch combined with seafood such as shrimp, fish or squid, while others make use of rice or animal products such as cattle skin. These preparations are consumed both as standalone snacks and as accompaniments to meals, reflecting regional preferences and available ingredients.
Among the most widespread types arekrupuk putih orkrupuk kampung,cassava starch crackers common throughout thearchipelago andkrupuk gendar, a rice-based cracker especially associated withJava.[9] Seafood-based varieties includekrupuk udang (prawn crackers),[10] the most internationally recognised type, andkrupuk ikan, widely produced in coastal centres such asPalembang,Bangka,Cirebon andSidoarjo. Regional specialities also includekrupuk kemplang from Palembang,amplang fromKalimantan andkrupuk kupang, aclam-based cracker fromEast Java.
Other distinctive forms highlight cultural and culinary diversity.Krupuk kulit (rambak orjangek) is prepared from cattle skin and is especially popular inWest Sumatra andJava, whilekrupuk kulit babi (pork rinds) are associated with non-Muslim-majority regions such asBali,North Sumatra andNorth Sulawesi. Local innovations includekrupuk melarat fromCirebon, roasted in clean river sand instead of oil,krupuk mie (noodle crackers) used as toppings for asinan, and speciality products such askrupuk petis fromKendal,krupuk telur asin fromBrebes, andkrupuk siput gonggong from theRiau Islands.[11]
In Malaysia,keropok is most often associated with fish and other seafood, reflecting the country's coastalfood traditions. It is widely available inmarkets and roadside stalls, eaten as a snack or served alongside meals, usually with dipping sauces such as chilli. Production is closely tied tofishing communities, wherekeropok has long formed part of local food culture and small-scale economies.
Among the many varieties,keropok kering is widely produced across different states and sold throughout the country, with common flavours includingikan tamban (sardine),ikan parang (wolf herring),udang merah (redprawn) andudang putih (white prawn).[12][13] Distinct regional specialities includekeropok lekor, a chewy fish cracker emblematic ofTerengganu, is usually eaten freshly fried and is also known askeropok gote inKelantan.Keropok sira refers to fish crackers coated in a sweet and spicy glaze, particularly associated with the east coast ofMalay Peninsula. InSabah,amplang is a popular nugget-shaped fish cracker characteristic of the coastal town ofTawau.
In thesouthern Thai provinces ofPattani,Yala andNarathiwat, fish crackers are locally known askeropok orkrue po (Thai:กรือโป๊ะ). The product is traditionally associated with theThai Malays and is produced primarily in coastal fishing communities. Similar to Malaysiankeropok, it is made either as a chewy form (keropok lekor) or as dried slices (keropok keping) that can later be deep-fried. Preparation typically involves combining minced fish withflour, shaping the mixture intocylinders, boiling until firm and slicing. The product is distributed both as a common snack and as aregional speciality, with more than 200small-scale producers active in the area.[14][15][16]
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In the Philippines, the snack is more commonly known askropek orkropeck. It is sometimes marketed in English as "fish crackers" or "prawn crackers", and less frequently compared withchicharrón, though the latter usually refers tofried pork orfish skin. While some commercially available vegetarian snacks made from tapioca starch orgreen peas resemblekropek, they are typically considered distinct products despite their similarities. Kropek is widely sold in small portions at neighbourhoodsari-sari stores, as well as in larger bags at supermarkets and convenience shops.
Kropek is typically served as a light snack orappetiser, often accompanied by avinegar and chilli dipping sauce, and is also consumed during social occasions or as aside dish with meals. Numerous local brands produce different varieties, among them La La Fish Crackers and Oishi, the latter being a Philippines-based snack food company that has expanded across Asia and become one of the region's major producers of prawn and fish crackers.
In the Netherlands,kroepoek is commonly known as a familiar element of Indonesian andIndo-Dutch cuisine. It is widely available in supermarkets, Asian grocery stores (toko), and Indonesian orChinese-Indonesian restaurants, where it is typically served as a side dish or snack. The most common variety is prawn crackers, sold both as dried slices for home frying and inready-to-eat form. Commercial brands such as Conimex, along withimported products like Krupuk Udang Sidoarjo, have madekroepoek a well-integrated part ofDutch food culture.[17]
In Suriname,kroepoek is widely consumed as part ofJavanese-Surinamese cuisine, introduced through Indonesian migration during thecolonial period. It is typically served as a snack or as an accompaniment to meals. Common varieties include prawn crackers, cassava-based crackers and rempeyek, all of which are prepared in both household and restaurant settings.[18]
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