Kerala has been a prominent exporter of spices since 3000 BCE. TheChera dynasty, the first major kingdom in the region, rose to prominence through maritime commerce but often faced invasions from the neighbouringChola andPandya dynasties. In the 15th century, thespice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, initiatingEuropean colonisation in India.
Kerala has the lowest positive population growth rate in India (3.44%); the highestHuman Development Index, at 0.784 in 2018; the highest literacy rate, 96.2% in 2018; the highest life expectancy, at 77.3 years; and the highestsex ratio, with 1,084 women per 1,000 men. It is theleast impoverished and thesecond-most urbanised state in the country. The state has witnessed significant emigration, particularly to theArab states of the Persian Gulf during theGulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy relies heavily on remittances from a largeMalayali expatriate population. Hinduism is practised by more than54% of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis ofAryan andDravidian traditions, shaped over millennia by influences from across India and abroad.
The production ofblack pepper andnatural rubber contributes significantly to the national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, and spices are important crops. The state's coastline extends for 595 kilometres (370 mi), and 1.1 million people depend on the fishing industry, which accounts for around 3% of the state's income. The economy is largely service-oriented, while the primary sector contributes a comparatively smaller share.
The wordKerala is first recorded asKeralaputo ('son ofChera [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by theMaurya emperorAshoka (274–237 BCE), one ofhis edicts pertaining to welfare.[14] At that time, one of three states in the region was calledCheralam in Classical Tamil:Chera andKera are variants of the same word.[15] The wordCheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from theOld Tamil word for 'lake'.[16]Keralam may stem from the ClassicalTamilcherive-alam 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope'[17] orchera alam 'land of the Cheras'. Onefolk etymology derivesKerala from theMalayalam wordkera 'coconut tree' andalam 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts',[18] which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees.[19] Kerala was alternatively calledMalabar in theforeign trade circles. From the time ofCosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, theArab sailors used to call KeralaMale.[citation needed]
A painting depictingParashurama, surrounded by settlers, commandingVaruna (theHindu god of water) to part the seas
In stories of theDashavatara fromHindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sageParashurama, the sixthavatar (incarnation) ofVishnu. As a result, Kerala is traditionally referred to asParashurama Kshetram ("The Land of Parashurama").[20] According to legend, Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded to the point where it landed. This land that emerged extended fromGokarna toKanyakumari.[21] The land that emerged was saline and uninhabitable, so Parashurama invoked the snake kingVasuki, who spat holy poison to purify the soil, transforming it into fertile land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as guardians of the land. The legend was expanded and codified in the 17th or 18th century textKeralolpathi. It links the origin of early Kerala institutions—such as land tenure and administration—to Parashurama's story.[22] In medieval times, theChera kingChenkuttuvan may have emulated the Parashurama tradition by throwing his spear into the sea to symbolise his lordship over it.[23]
A prominentPuranic figure associated with Kerala isMahabali, anasura and archetypal just king who is said to have ruled the earth from Kerala. He defeated thedevas in battle, driving them into exile. In response, the devas appealed to Vishnu, who assumed his fifth avatar asVamana and, to restore order, pushed Mahabali down toPatala (the netherworld). According to popular belief, Mahabali returns to Kerala once a year, which is commemorated as theOnam festival.[24] TheMatsya Purana, one of the oldest among the 18Puranas,[25][26] situates the story ofMatsya—the first avatar of Vishnu—and kingManu, the first man and ruler of the region—in theMalaya Mountains of Kerala andTamil Nadu.[27][28]
A substantial portion of present-day Kerala is believed to have been submerged under the sea in ancient times. The discovery of marine fossils near Changanassery supports this hypothesis.[29] Prehistoric archaeological discoveries in Kerala includeNeolithic-eradolmens in theMarayur region of the Idukki district, locally known asmuniyara—frommuni (hermit or sage) andara (dolmen).[30] Rock engravings in theEdakkal caves inWayanad date back to the Neolithic period, around 6000 BCE.[31][32] Archaeological studies have identifiedMesolithic, Neolithic andMegalithic sites throughout the region.[33] These findings indicate that the development of early Kerala society and culture began in thePaleolithic Age and progressed through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic periods.[34] Foreign cultural interactions also played a role in shaping this development;[35] some historians suggest possible connections with theIndus Valley Civilisation during the lateBronze Age and earlyIron Age.[36]
Ancient history
Silk Road map. The spice trade was along the water routes (blue).
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since at least 3000 BCE, according toSumerian records, and it is continues to be referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".[37][38][39] The region's spices attracted ancientBabylonians,Assyrians, andEgyptians to the Malabar Coast during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE.Arabs andPhoenicians also established trade links with Kerala during this period.[40] The land of Keralaputra was one of four independent kingdoms in southern India during the time of Emperor Ashoka, alongside theChola,Pandya, andSatiyaputra kingdoms.[41] Scholars generally identify Keralaputra as another name for theCheras, the earliest major dynasty based in Kerala.[42][43] These southern territories once shared a common language and cultural framework, within a region historically known asTamilakam.[44] While the Cheras governed most of what is now Kerala, the southern tip of the region fell under the control of thePandyas,[45] whose trading port is sometimes identified in ancient Western sources asNelcynda (or Neacyndi).[46] Later, control of the region alternated among the Pandyas, Cheras, and Cholas. TheAys andMushikas were two other dynasties of ancient Kerala, located to the south and north of the Chera territory, respectively.[47][48]
By the last centuries BCE, the coast had become an important hub for Greek and Roman trade, particularly inblack pepper. The Cheras maintained commercial links withAncient China,West Asia,Egypt,Greece, and theRoman Empire. In foreign trade records, the region was referred to as Male orMalabar.[49] Principal ports of the time includedMuziris, Berkarai, and Nelcynda.[50] The value of Rome's annual trade with Kerala has been estimated at around 50 millionsesterces.[51] ContemporarySangam literature describes Roman ships arriving at Muziris, laden with gold in exchange for pepper. One of the earliest Western traders to navigate the monsoon winds to reach Kerala wasEudoxus of Cyzicus, who made the voyage around 118 or 166 BCE under the patronage ofPtolemy VIII, king of theHellenisticPtolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Roman establishments in the region's port cities—including a temple ofAugustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers—are recorded in theTabula Peutingeriana, the only surviving map of the Romancursus publicus.[52][53]
Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.[54] The Jewish connection with Kerala is believed to date back to 573 BCE.[55][56][57] Arab traders had links with Kerala from at least the 4th century BCE;Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to Jews in Eden.[50] These Arab traders intermarried with local communities, leading to the formation of the MuslimMappila community.[58] In the 4th century CE, some Christians migrated fromPersia and joined the earlySyrian Christian community, which traces its origins to the evangelistic activities ofThomas the Apostle in the 1st century CE.[59][60] The term Mappila—originally an honorific applied to esteemed foreign visitors—later became associated with the descendants of Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim immigrants, leading to the termsJuda Mappilas,Nasrani Mappilas, andMuslim Mappilas, respectively.[61][62] According to the traditions of these communities, some of the earliest religious establishments in India were built in Kerala.[58] These include theSaint Thomas Christian churches,[63] theCheraman Juma Masjid (established in 629 CE), India's first mosque,[64] and theParadesi Synagogue (built in 1568 CE), the oldest active synagogue in theCommonwealth of Nations.[65]
Medieval period
Tharisapalli plates granted toSaint Thomas Christians testify that merchant guilds and trade corporations played a very significant role in the economy and social life during the Kulasekhara period.
Asecond Chera kingdom (c. 800–1102), also known as the Kulasekhara dynasty ofMahodayapuram, was founded byKulasekhara Varman and governed over a territory comprising most of present-day Kerala and parts of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early phase of the Kulasekara period, the southern region—fromNagerkovil toThiruvalla—was controlled by theAy dynasty. By the 10th century, however, the Ays had lost their power, and the region was incorporated into the Kulashekara realm.[66][67] Under Kulashekhara rule, Kerala experienced a flourishing period marked by developments in art, literature, trade, and theBhakti movement within Hinduism.[68] It was during this time that a distinct Keralite identity began to emerge, separate from Tamil culture, particularly through linguistic differentiation.[69] For administrative purposes, the kingdom was divided into provinces governed by local chieftains calledNaduvazhis. Each province was further subdivided intodesams, which were overseen by Desavazhis.[68]
A series of Chera–Chola conflicts in the 11th century disrupted foreign trade through Kerala's ports. During this period,Buddhism andJainism, which had previously coexisted with Hinduism, declined and eventually disappeared from the region.[70] Social structures became increasingly rigid, andcaste divisions deepened.[71] The Kulashekhara dynasty ultimately fell in 1102 CE following a combined assault by theLater Pandyas andLater Cholas.[66] In the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (r. 1299–1314) of the southernVenad kingdom briefly established a short-lived supremacy over much of southern India. Following his death, and in the absence of a strong central authority, the region fragmented into thirty small, frequently warring principalities. Among the most powerful were the kingdom ofSamuthiri (Zamorin) in the north, Venad in the south and Kochi in the central region. In the 18th century, KingAnizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma of Travancore launched a series of military campaigns and annexed territories up to northern Kerala, establishing Travancore as the dominant power in the region. The Kochi ruler sued for peace, and the Malabar region eventually came under directBritish rule untilIndian independence in 1947.[72][73]
Colonial rule
The route taken byVasco da Gama to reach Kerala (indicated in black)
During theHigh andLate Middle Ages, Arab traders held a maritime monopoly over the spice trade in theIndian Ocean. This dominance was challenged during the EuropeanAge of Discovery when the spice trade—particularly in black pepper—became a major focus of European commercial activity.[74] By the 15th century, the Portuguese had begun asserting control over eastern maritime routes, culminating inVasco Da Gama's arrival atKappad, nearKozhikode (Calicut), in 1498.[75][76] TheZamorin of Kozhikode granted the Portuguese permission to trade with his subjects, leading to the establishment of a prosperous Portuguesefactory and fort.[77]
However, tensions arose when the Portuguese attacked Arab traders operating under the Zamorin's protection, causing a breakdown in relations. Seizing the opportunity presented by rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi, the Portuguese allied with Kochi. WhenFrancisco de Almeida was appointed Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, he established his headquarters atFort Kochi (Fort Emmanuel), rather than in Kozhikode. Under his administration, the Portuguese consolidated their influence by building several fortifications along the Malabar Coast.[77] Despite these advances, the Portuguese faced significant resistance from the Zamorin's naval forces, particularly under the command of theKunjali Marakkars—admirals of Kozhikode—who launched effective maritime campaigns. This resistance eventually forced the Portuguese to seek a treaty. In 1571, the Zamorin's forces defeated the Portuguese in theBattle of Chaliyam Fort, marking a major setback for Portuguese ambitions in the region.[78]
The Portuguese were eventually supplanted by theDutch East India Company, which capitalised on ongoing conflicts between the Kozhikode and Kochi to gain control over trade in the region.[79] However, the Dutch too faced military resistance, most notably fromMarthanda Varma of theTravancore royal family. After a decisive Dutch defeat at theBattle of Colachel in 1741,[80] the Treaty of Mavelikkara was signed in 1753, forcing the Dutch to withdraw from regional political affairs and confining their role to trade.[81][82][83] Marthanda Varma continued his military campaigns, establishing Travancore as the preeminent power in Kerala.[84]
In the 20th century, Kerala was the site of several major uprisings during the Indian independence movement. Among the most notable was the 1921Malabar Rebellion, in which Mappila Muslims of the Malabar region rioted against Hinduzamindars (landlords) and British colonial authorities.[93] Social reform moments also gained momentum during this period, particularly those challenging caste-based discrimination. A major milestone was theTemple Entry Proclamation of 1936 in Travancore, which granted lower-caste Hindus the right to enter temples previously restricted to upper castes.[94]
The state is wedged between theLaccadive Sea and theWestern Ghats.[102] Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22',[103] Kerala experiences humidtropical rainforest climate with some cyclones. The state has a coast of 590 km (370 mi)[104] and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 kilometres (7 and 75 mi).[105] Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains.[106]: 110 Pre-Cambrian andPleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain.[107][108] A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport.[109]The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats'rain shadow.[106]: 110 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers,[110] and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region.[111][112] The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only nearPalakkad; hence also known Palghat, where thePalakkad Gap breaks.[113] The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 metres (4,900feet)above sea level,[114] while the highest peaks reach around 2,500 metres (8,200 feet).[115]Anamudi in theIdukki district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of 2,695 m (8,842 ft).[116] The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed amongUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites.[117] The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains.[117] TheAthirappilly Falls, which is situated on the background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known asTheNiagara of India.[118] It is located in theChalakudy River and is the largest waterfall in the state.[118]Wayanad is the solePlateau in Kerala.[119] The eastern regions in the districts ofWayanad,Malappuram (Chaliyar valley atNilambur), andPalakkad (Attappadi Valley), which together form parts of theNilgiri Biosphere Reserve and a continuation of theMysore Plateau, are known for naturalGold fields, along with the adjoining districts ofKarnataka.[120] Minerals includingIlmenite,Monazite,Thorium, andTitanium, are found in the coastal belt of Kerala.[121] Kerala's coastal belt ofKarunagappally is known for high background radiation fromthorium-containingmonazite sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4mGy/yr and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr.[122]
Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region,[106]: 33 and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnectedbrackish canals, lakes,estuaries,[123] and rivers known as theKerala Backwaters.[124]Kuttanad, also known asThe Rice Bowl of Kerala, has thelowest altitude in India, and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level.[125][126] The country's longest lakeVembanad, dominates the backwaters; it lies betweenAlappuzha andKochi and is about 200 km2 (77 sq mi) in area.[127] Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala.[128] Kerala's44 rivers include thePeriyar; 244 kilometres (152 mi),Bharathapuzha; 209 kilometres (130 mi),Pamba; 176 kilometres (109 mi),Chaliyar; 169 kilometres (105 mi),Kadalundipuzha; 130 kilometres (81 mi),Chalakudipuzha; 130 kilometres (81 mi),Valapattanam; 129 kilometres (80 mi) and theAchankovil River; 128 kilometres (80 mi). The average length of the rivers is 64 kilometres (40 mi). Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain.[129] As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking indelta, they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution.[130] The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state was also affected by the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami,[131] and in 2018 receivedthe worst flooding in nearly a century.[132] In 2024, Kerala experienced its worstlandslides in history.[133]
Climate
With around 120–140 rainy days per year,[134]: 80 Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of thesouthwest summer monsoon andnortheast winter monsoon.[135] Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon.[135] The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of theIndian Peninsula, because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch".[136] The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats,[137] making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon.[138][139] The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India.[140][141] In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only.[142] Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually.[143] Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in); the mountains of the easternIdukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) oforographic precipitation: the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.[144]: 26, 46, 52 The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C.[145] Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands.[144]: 65
Most of thebiodiversity is concentrated and protected in theWestern Ghats. Three-quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to the 18th century.[146] As of 2004[update], over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000flowering plant species; 1,272 of which areendemic to Kerala, 900 aremedicinal, and 159 arethreatened.[147]: 11 Its 9,400 km2 of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km2), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km2 and 100 km2, respectively), and montane subtropical andtemperate (shola) forests (highest elevations—100 km2). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.[147]: 12 Four of the world'sRamsar Convention listedwetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta,Ashtamudi Lake,Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands, and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala,[148] as well as 1455.4 km2 of the vastNilgiri Biosphere Reserve and 1828 km2 of theAgasthyamala Biosphere Reserve.[149] Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,[150]: 6–7 much of the remaining forest cover is now protected fromclearfelling.[151] Eastern Kerala's windward mountains sheltertropical moist forests andtropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats.[152][153] The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is inNilambur.[154]
The state's14 districts are distributed among six regions:North Malabar (far-north Kerala),South Malabar (north-central Kerala),Kochi (central Kerala),Northern Travancore (south-central Kerala),Central Travancore (southern Kerala) andSouthern Travancore (far-south Kerala). The districts that serve as administrative regions for taxation and land revenue purposes are further subdivided into27 revenue subdivisions and77 taluks, which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further subdivided into 1,674revenue villages.[158][159]
TheGovernment of Kerala is ademocratically elected body in India with thegovernor as its constitutional head and is appointed by thepresident of India for a five-year term.[175] The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as thechief minister by the governor, and thecouncil of ministers is appointed by the governor on the advice of the chief minister.[175] The governor remains a ceremonial head of the state, while the chief minister and his council are responsible for day-to-day government functions. The council of ministers consists of Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (MoS). The Secretariat headed by theChief Secretary assists the council of ministers. The Chief Secretary is also the administrative head of the government. Each government department is headed by a minister, who is assisted by anAdditional Chief Secretary or aPrincipal Secretary, who is usually an officer of theIndian Administrative Service (IAS). The Additional Chief Secretaries/Principal Secretaries serve as the administrative heads of the department to which they are assigned. Each department also has officers of the rank of Secretary, Special Secretary, Joint Secretary, and other supporting officials, who assist the Minister and the Additional Chief Secretary or Principal Secretary in carrying out departmental functions and ensuring effective coordination.[citation needed]
Each Secretariat department is in charge of a number of executive departments. The executive departments or agencies (known as directorates, commissionerates, and similar entities) are responsible for implementing government policies and carrying out work at the field level. These entities are headed by a Director, Commissioner, Chief, or Director General, who functions as the Head of Department. Each of these departments has its owns administrative subdivisions.[citation needed]
The state is divided into fourteen districts, each headed by aDistrict Collector appointed by the government. The District Collector is responsible for land revenue administration, disaster management, elections, maintenance of law and order, and coordination of various government departments within the district. For administrative convenience, each district is further divided intorevenue divisions,taluks, andrevenue villages, primarily for the purpose of land revenue administration.[citation needed]
Thejudiciary consists of theKerala High Court and a system of lower courts.[177] The High Court, located inKochi,[178] has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additionalpro tempore justices as of 2021[update].[179] The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory ofLakshadweep.[180][181] The state’s subordinate judiciary consists of District Courts in each of the 14 districts, headed by District Judges, along with civil courts (Munsiff and Senior Civil Judges) and criminal courts (Judicial Magistrates, Chief Judicial Magistrates, and Sessions Courts) handling cases according to their jurisdiction.
Local government
In Kerala, local government bodies such as Panchayats, Municipalities, and Corporations have existed since 1959. However, a significant decentralization initiative began in 1993, aligning with constitutional amendments by theunion government.[182][183]: 12 The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and the Kerala Municipality Act were enacted in 1994, establishing a three-tier system for rural governance and a single-tier system for urban governance.[citation needed]
The rural governance structure consists ofGram Panchayats,Block Panchayats, andDistrict Panchayats.[184] The Acts define clear powers for these institutions.[182] For urban areas, the Kerala Municipality Act provides a single-tier system, comprisingMunicipalities andMunicipal Corporations, which are responsible for local governance and civic administration. These bodies receive substantial administrative, legal, and financial powers to ensure effective decentralization.[183]: 13 Currently, the state government allocates around 40% of the state plan outlay to local governments.[185] Kerala has 1,200 local bodies, including 941 Gram Panchayats, 152 Block Panchayats, 14 District Panchayats, 87 Municipalities, and 6 Municipal Corporations.[186]
Kerala was declared the first digital state of India in 2016 and, according to the India Corruption Survey 2019 byTransparency International, is considered the least corrupt state in India.[187][188] The Public Affairs Index-2020 designated Kerala as the best-governed state in India.[189]
After independence, the state was managed as asocial democraticwelfare economy.[191] The "Kerala phenomenon" or "Kerala model of development" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from a strong service sector.[144]: 48 [192]: 1 In 2019–20, the economy of Kerala was the8th-largest in India with₹8.55 trillion (US$100 billion) in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of₹222,000 (US$2,600).[193] In 2019–20, thetertiary sector contributed around 63% of the state'sGSVA, compared to 28% bysecondary sector, and 8% byprimary sector.[194] In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one.[194]
Kerala's economy depends significantly onemigrants working in foreign countries, mainly in theArab states of the Persian Gulf, and theremittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.[197] The state witnessed significant emigration during theGulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$11.3 billion, which was nearly 16% of the US$71 billion remittances to the country.[198] In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over₹1 lakh crore (US$12 billion), amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about₹7 lakh crore (US$83 billion).[199]Malappuram district has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state.[194] A study commissioned by theKerala State Planning Board, suggested that the state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure.[200]
As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.[201] On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village.[202]Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9.4%;[203] chronic issues areunderemployment, low employability of youth, and a low femalelabour participation rate of only 13.5%,[204]: 5, 13 as was the practice ofNokku kooli, "wages for looking on".[205] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.[206]
The state's budget of 2020–2021 was₹1.15 lakh crore (US$14 billion).[207] The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to₹674 billion (US$8.0 billion) in 2020–21; up from₹557 billion (US$6.6 billion) in 2019–20. Itsnon-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached₹146 billion (US$1.7 billion) in 2020–2021.[207] However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.[208] A record total of 223hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over₹20 billion (US$240 million).[209] Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100.[210]
Despite many achievements, Kerala faces many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment.[217]
Tea plantations atMunnar, KeralaA paddy field atPalakkad, also known asThe Granary of Kerala
The major change in agriculture in Kerala occurred in the 1970s when production of rice fell due to increased availability of rice all over India and decreased availability of labour.[224] Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops.[225][226] Profitability of crops fell due to a shortage of farm labour, the high price of land, and the uneconomic size of operational holdings.[227] Only 27.3% of the families in Kerala depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, which is also the least corresponding rate in India.[228]
Kerala produces 97% of the national output of black pepper[229] and accounts for 85% of thenatural rubber in the country.[230][231]Coconut,tea,coffee,cashew, and spices—including cardamom,vanilla,cinnamon, andnutmeg are the main agricultural products.[106]: 74 [232][233][234][235][236] Around 80% ofIndia's export quality cashew kernels are prepared inKollam.[237] The key cash crop iscoconut and Kerala ranks first in the area of coconut cultivation in India.[238] Around 90% of the totalCardamom produced in India is from Kerala.[194] India is the second-largest producer of Cardamom in world.[194] About 20% of the totalCoffee produced in India are from Kerala.[196] The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields.[239] Home gardens made up a significant portion of the agricultural sector.[240]
Fisheries
With 590 kilometres (370miles) of coastal belt,[241] 400,000 hectares of inland water resources[242] and approximately 220,000 active fishermen,[243] Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India.[244] According to 2003–04 reports, about 11 lakh(1.1 million) people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 6,08,000 tons in 2003–04.[245] This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, around 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala.[246] During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank develops along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water, peaking the output of the fishing industry. This phenomenon is locally calledchakara.[247][248] The waters provide a large variety of fish:pelagic species; 59%,demersal species; 23%,crustaceans,molluscs and others for 18%.[246] Around 1050,000 (1.050 million) fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of a 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590-kilometre (370-mile) coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.[citation needed]
Kerala has 331,904 kilometres (206,236 mi) of roads, which accounts for 5.6% of India's total.[194][249] This translates to about 9.94 kilometres (6.18 mi) of road per thousand people, compared to an average of 4.87 kilometres (3.03 mi) in the country.[194][249] Roads in Kerala include 1,812 kilometres (1,126 mi) of national highway; 1.6% of the nation's total, 4,342 kilometres (2,698 mi) of state highway; 2.5% of the nation's total, 27,470 kilometres (17,070 mi) of district roads; 4.7% of the nation's total, 33,201 kilometres (20,630 mi) of urban (municipal) roads; 6.3% of the nation's total, and 158,775 kilometres (98,658 mi) of rural roads; 3.8% of the nation's total.[250]Kottayam has the maximum length of roads among thedistricts of Kerala, whileWayanad accounts for minimum.[251] Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through theNH 66 (previously NH 17 and 47); and the eastern side is accessible through state highways.[252] New projects for hill and coastal highways were recently announced underKIIFB.[253] National Highway 66, with the longest stretch of road (1,622 kilometres (1,008 mi)) connectsKanyakumari toMumbai; it enters Kerala viaTalapady inKasargod and passes throughKannur,Kozhikode,Malappuram,Guruvayur,Kochi,Alappuzha,Kollam,Thiruvananthapuram before enteringTamil Nadu.[252]Palakkad district is generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala, due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap in the Western Ghats, through which the northern (Malabar) and southern (Travancore) parts of Kerala are connected to the rest of India via road and rail. The state's largest checkpoint,Walayar, is onNH 544, in the border town between Kerala andTamil Nadu, through which a large amount of public and commercial transportation reaches the northern and central districts of Kerala.[254]
TheDepartment of Public Works is responsible for maintaining and expanding thestate highways system and major district roads.[255] The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes theGIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala. It also oversees a few major district roads.[256][257] Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Traffic density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving.[258] National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are 45 metres (148 feet) wide. In other states, national highways are grade separated, 60 metres (200 feet) wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8-lane access-controlled expressways.[259][260] The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has threatened the Kerala state government that it will give higher priority to other states in highway development since political commitment to better highways in Kerala has been lacking.[261] As of 2013[update], Kerala had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the state's national highways.[262]
Kollam Airport, established under the Madras Presidency, but since closed, was the first airport in Kerala.[266]Kannur had an airstrip used for commercial aviation as early as 1935 whenTata airlines operated weekly flights betweenMumbai and Thiruvananthapuram – stopping atGoa and Kannur.[267] Trivandrum International Airport, managed by theAirport Authority of India, is among the oldest existing airports in South India.Calicut International Airport, which was opened in 1988, is the second-oldest existing airport in Kerala and the oldest in theMalabar region.[268] Cochin International Airport is the busiest in the state and theseventh busiest in the country. It is also the first airport in the world to be fully powered bysolar energy[269] and has won the covetedChampion of the Earth award, the highest environmental honour instituted by theUnited Nations.[270] Cochin International Airport is also the first Indian airport to be incorporated as apublic limited company; it was funded by nearly 10,000non-resident Indians from 30 countries.[271]Other than civilian airports,Kochi has a naval airport namedINS Garuda. Thiruvananthapuram International Airport shares civilian facilities with the Southern Air Command of theIndian Air Force. These facilities are used mostly by central government VIPs visiting Kerala.[citation needed]
Kerala also have India's first water metro , called 'Kochi water metro'.[276] The Kochi water metro project identified 15 routes, connecting 10 islands along a network of routes that span 78 km with a fleet of 78 fast, and fully electrically propelled hybrid ferries .[277]
Kerala is home to 2.8% of India's population; with a density of 859 persons per km2, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the national average of 370 persons per km2.[280] As of 2011[update], Thiruvananthapuram is the most populous city in Kerala.[281] In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one-third of the all-India average of 17.6%.[280] Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3 million by 2011.[280] Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2022 persons per km2, 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km2, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.[282] Kerala is thesecond-most urbanised major state in the country with47.7% urban population according to the2011 Census of India.[283] Around 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly Malayali.[280] The state's 321,000 indigenous tribalAdivasis, 1.1% of the population, are concentrated in the east.[284]: 10–12
Gender
There is a tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala, where the mother is the head of the household.[285] As a result, women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society. This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families.[286] Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate,[287] which in turn, make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations. According to the Human Development Report of 1996, Kerala'sGender Development Index was 597; higher than any other state of India. Factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourablesex ratio, contributed to it.[288]
Kerala's sex ratio of 1.084 (females to males) is higher than that of the rest of India; it is the only state where women outnumber men.[192]: 2 While having the opportunities that education affords them, such as political participation, keeping up to date with current events, reading religious texts, etc., these tools have still not translated into full,equal rights for the women of Kerala. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. In the state, despite the social progress, gender still influencessocial mobility.[289][290][291]
Kerala has been at the forefront of LGBT issues inIndia.[292] Kerala is one of the firststates in India to form a welfare policy for the transgender community. In 2016, the Kerala government introduced freesex reassignment surgery through government hospitals.[293][294][295]Queerala is one of the major LGBT organisations in Kerala. It campaigns for increased awareness of LGBT people and sensitisation concerning healthcare services, workplace policies and educational curriculum.[296] Since 2010, Kerala Queer Pride has been held annually across various cities in Kerala.[297]
In June 2019, the Kerala government passed a new order that members of the transgender community should not be referred to as the "third gender" or "other gender" in government communications. Instead, the term "transgender" should be used. Previously, the gender preferences provided in government forms and documents included male, female, and other/third gender.[298][299]
Under a democratic communist local government, Kerala has achieved a record of social development much more advanced than the Indian average.[301] As of 2015[update], Kerala has aHuman Development Index (HDI) of 0.770, which is in the "high" category, ranking it first in the country.[302] It was 0.790 in 2007–08[303] and it had a consumption-based HDI of 0.920, which is better than that of many developed countries.[303] Comparatively higher spending by the government onprimary level education,health care and the elimination ofpoverty from the 19th century onwards has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI;[304][305] the report was prepared by the central government'sInstitute of Applied Manpower Research.[306][307] However, the Human Development Report 2005, prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state.[304] Kerala is also widely regarded as thecleanest and healthiest state in India.[308]
According to the 2011 census, Kerala has the highestliteracy rate (94%) among Indian states. In 2018, the literacy rate was calculated to be 96.2% in the 2018 literacy survey conducted by the National Statistical Office, India.[309] In theKottayam district, the literacy rate was 97%.[310][10][311] Thelife expectancy in Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India as of 2011[update].[312] Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India.[313] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.[206] The 2013 Tendulkar Committee Report on poverty estimated that the percentages of the population living below the poverty line in rural and urban Kerala are 9.1% and 5.0%, respectively.[314] These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.[315][316] This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.[144][317]: 48 Kerala is theleast impoverished state in India according toNITI Aayog's Sustainable Development Goals dashboard andReserve Bank of India'sHandbook of Statistics on Indian Economy.[318][319]
Kerala has undergone a "demographic transition" characteristic of suchdeveloped nations asCanada,Japan, andNorway.[192]: 1 In 2005, 11.2% of people were over the age of 60.[317] In 2023, the BBC reported on the problems and benefits which have arisen from migration away from Kerala, focussing on the village of Kumbanad.[320]
In 2004, the birthrate was low at 18 per 1,000.[321] According to the 2011 census, Kerala had a total fertility rate (TFR) of 1.6. All districts except Malappuram district had fertility rates below 2. Fertility rate is highest inMalappuram district (2.2) and lowest inPathanamthitta district (1.3).[322] In 2001, Muslims had the TFR of 2.6 as against 1.5 for Hindus and 1.7 for Christians.[323] The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by CMS Indian Corruption Study (CMS-ICS)[324] Transparency International (2005)[325] andIndia Today (1997).[326] Kerala has the lowesthomicide rate among Indian states, with 1.1 per 100,000 in 2011.[327] In respect of female empowerment, some negative factors such as highersuicide rate, lower share ofearned income,child marriage,[328] complaints ofsexual harassment and limited freedom are reported.[288] The child marriage is lower in Kerala. The Malappuram district has the highest number of child marriages and the number of such cases is increasing in Malappuram. Child marriages are particularlyhigher among the Muslim community.[329][330] In 2019, Kerala recorded the highest child sex abuse complaints in India.[331]
In 2015, Kerala had the highest conviction rate of any state, over 77%.[332] Kerala has the lowest proportion of homeless people in rural India, <0.1%,[333] and the state is attempting to reach the goal of becoming the first "Zero Homeless State", in addition to its acclaimed "Zero landless project", with private organisations and the expatriate Malayali community funding projects for building homes for the homeless.[334] The state was also among the lowest in theIndia State Hunger Index next only toPunjab. In 2015 Kerala became the first "complete digital state" by implementing e-governance initiatives.[335]
Kerala is a pioneer in implementing theuniversal health care program.[336] Thesub-replacement fertility level andinfant mortality rate are lower compared to those of other states, estimated from 12[144][321]: 49 to 14[337]: 5 deaths per 1,000 live births; as per the National Family Health Survey 2015–16, it has dropped to 6.[338] According to a study commissioned byLien Foundation, aSingapore-based philanthropic organisation, Kerala is considered to be the best place to die in India based on the state's provision of palliative care for patients with serious illnesses.[339] However, Kerala'smorbidity rate is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively as of 2005[update].[337]: 5 Kerala's 13.3%prevalence oflow birth weight is higher than that of manyfirst world nations.[321] Outbreaks ofwater-borne diseases such asdiarrhoea,dysentery,hepatitis, andtyphoid among the more than 50% of people who rely on 3 millionwater wells is an issue worsened by the lack ofsewers.[340]: 5–7 As of 2017, the state has the highest number of diabetes patients and also the highest prevalence rate of the disease in India.[341]
TheUnited Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and theWorld Health Organization designated Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state" because of its effective promotion of breastfeeding over formulas.[342][343] Over 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered and the state also has the lowest infant mortality rate in the country. The third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in "Institutional Delivery" with 100% of births being in medical facilities.[282]Ayurveda,[344]: 13 siddha, and endangered and endemic modes oftraditional medicine, includingkalari,marmachikitsa andvishavaidyam, are practised. Some occupational communities such asKaniyar were known as native medicine men in relation to the practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.[345] These propagate viagurukula discipleship,[344]: 5–6 and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and alternative treatments.[344]: 15 TheArya Vaidya Sala established byVaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier atKottakkal (about 10 km fromMalappuram) in 1902, is the largest Ayurvedic medicinal network and health centre in the state.[346][347][348] It is also one of the largest Ayurvedic medicinal brands in the world.[346][347][348]
In 2014, Kerala became the first state in India to offer free cancer treatment to the poor, via a program called Sukrutham.[349] People in Kerala experience elevated incidence ofcancers,liver andkidney diseases.[350] In April 2016, theEconomic Times reported that 250,000 residents undergo treatment for cancer. It also reported that approximately 150 to 200 liver transplants are conducted in the region's hospitals annually. Approximately 42,000 cancer cases are reported in the region annually. This is believed to be an underestimate as private hospitals may not be reporting their figures. Long waiting lists for kidney donations have stimulated illegal trade in human kidneys, and prompted the establishment of the Kidney Federation of India which aims to support financially disadvantaged patients.[351] As of 2017–18, there are 6,691 modern medicine institutions under the Department of Health Services, of which the total bed strength is 37,843; 15,780 in rural areas and 22,063 in urban.[352]
Percentage of the most popular religion in each Taluk of Kerala
Kerala is very religiously diverse withHindus,Muslims andChristians having a significant population throughout the state. Kerala is often regarded as one of the most diverse states in all of India.[358][359]Hinduism is the most widely professed faith in Kerala, with significant numbers of adherents toIslam andChristianity. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively littlesectarianism.[360] According to2011 Census of India figures, 54.7% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 26.6% are Muslims, 18.4% are Christians, and the remaining 0.3% follow another religion or have no religious affiliation.[361] Hindus represent the biggest religious group in all districts exceptMalappuram, where they are outnumbered by Muslims.[362] Kerala has the largest population of Christians in India.[363] As of 2016, Hindus, Muslims, Christians and others account for 41.9%, 42.6%, 15.4% and 0.2% of the total childbirths in the state, respectively.[364]
Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the largerIndian Ocean rim, via spice and silk traders from theMiddle East. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.[365][366] Notable has been the occurrence ofCheraman Perumal Tajuddin, the mythical Hindu king who moved toArabia to meetMuhammad and converted to Islam.[367][368][369] Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as theMappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that form the Muslim population of Kerala.[370][371] According to theLegend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 CE atKodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) ofChera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime ofMuhammad (c. 570–632).[372][373][374][375]
TheKerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, includingseries expansion for trigonometric functions.[398][399] In the early decades of the 19th century, the modern educational transformation of Kerala was triggered by the efforts of theChurch Mission Society missionaries to promote mass education.[400][401][402][403][404] Following the recommendations of theWood's despatch of 1854, the princely states of Travancore and Cochin launched mass education drives mainly based on castes and communities, and introduced a system ofgrant-in-aid to attract more private initiatives.[405] Catholic institutions such asSt Thomas College Thrissur andSB College Changanasserry were established under the leadership of the Catholic Church. The efforts by leaders such asFr. Kuriakose Elias Chavara,Mar Charles Lavigne SJ,Vaikunda Swami,Narayana Guru andAyyankali in aiding the socially discriminated castes in the state—with the help of community-based organisations likeNair Service Society,SNDP,Muslim Educational Society, Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and congregations of Christian churches—led to the further development of mass education in Kerala.[405]
In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as completely literate, although the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90%.[406] In 2006–2007, the state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) of the 21 major states in India.[407] As of 2007[update], enrolment in elementary education was almost 100%; and, unlike other states in India, educational opportunity was almost equally distributed among sexes, social groups, and regions.[408] According to the 2011 census, Kerala has a 93.9% literacy, compared to the national literacy rate of 74.0%.[311] In January 2016, Kerala became the first Indian state to achieve 100% primary education through itsAthulyam literacy programme.[409]
The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it is an integral part ofIndian culture.[412] It is a synthesis ofAryan,Dravidian,Arab, andEuropean cultures,[413] developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India and abroad.[414] It is defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by theMalayali people.[415] It was elaborated through centuries of contact with neighbouring and overseas cultures.[416] However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in the development of a distinctive lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions.[412] Over 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state every year.[417] TheMalayalam calendar, a solar sidereal calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala,[418] finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities.[419]Malayalam, one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala'sofficial language.[420] Over a dozen otherscheduled and unscheduled languages are also spoken.[421] Kerala has the greatest consumption of alcohol in India.[422]
Many of the temples in Kerala hold festivals on specific days of the year.[423] A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is brought down on the final day of the festival after immersing the deity.[424] Some festivals include Poorams, the best known of these being theThrissur Pooram.[425] "Elephants, firework displays and huge crowds" are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram.[426] Other known festivals areMakaravilakku,[427]Chinakkathoor Pooram,Attukal Pongala andNenmara Vallangi Vela[428] Other than these, festivals locally known asutsavams are conducted by many temples mostly on annual basis. Temples that can afford it will usually involve at least one richly caparisoned elephant as part of the festivities. The idol in the temple is taken out on a procession around the countryside atop this elephant. When the procession visits homes around the temple, people will usually present rice, coconuts, and other offerings to it.[429] Processions often include traditional music such asPanchari melam orPanchavadyam.[430]Eid al-Fitr andEid al-Adha are celebrated by the Muslim community of the state while the festivals likeChristmas andEaster are observed by the Christians.[431] Onam is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala and is reminiscent of the state's agrarian past.[432][433] It is a local festival of Kerala[434] consisting of a four-day public holidays; from Onam Eve (Uthradam) to the fourth Onam Day.[435] Onam falls in the Malayalam month of Chingam (August–September)[436] and marks the commemoration of the homecoming of KingMahabali.[437] The total duration of Onam is 10 days and it is celebrated all across Kerala. It is one of the festivals celebrated with cultural elements such asVallam Kali,[438]Pulikali,[439] Pookkalam,[440] Thumbi Thullal[441] andOnavillu.[442]
Kerala is home to a number ofperformance arts. These include five classical dance forms:Kathakali,Mohiniyattam,Koodiyattom,Thullal andKrishnanattam, which originated and developed in the temple theatres during the classical period under the patronage of royal houses.[443]Kerala natanam,Thirayattam,[444]Kaliyattam,Theyyam,Koothu andPadayani are other dance forms associated with the temple culture of the region.[445] Some traditional dance forms such asOppana andDuffmuttu were popular among the Muslims of the state,[446] whileMargamkali andParichamuttukali are popular among the Syrian Christians andChavittu nadakom is popular among the Latin Christians.[447][448] The development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala.[449] The development of the indigenous classical music form,Sopana Sangeetham, illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala.[449]Carnatic music dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result ofSwathi Thirunal Rama Varma's popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.[416] Raga-based renditions known assopanam accompanykathakali performances.[450]Melam, including thepaandi andpanchari variants, is a more percussive style of music;[451] it is performed atKshetram-centered festivals using thechenda.Panchavadyam is a form of percussion ensemble, in which artists use five types of percussion instruments.[451] Kerala's visual arts range fromtraditional murals to the works ofRaja Ravi Varma, the state's most renowned painter.[449] Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes;Vadakkan Pattukal (Northern Ballads),Thekkan pattukal (Southern Ballads),Vanchi pattukal (Boat Songs),Mappila Pattukal (Muslim songs) andPallipattukal (Church songs) are a few of them.[452]
Kerala cuisine includes a wide variety of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry, and meat. Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine.[493] Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day.[494] A majority of the breakfast foods in Kerala are made out of rice, in one form or the other (idli,dosa,puttu,pathiri,appam, oridiyappam),tapioca preparations, or pulse-basedvada.[495] These may be accompanied bychutney,kadala,payasam,payarpappadam,appam, chicken curry, beef fry, egg masala and fish curry.[232]Porotta andBiryani are also often found in restaurants in Kerala. Thalassery biryani is popular as an ethnic brand. Lunch dishes includerice and curry along withrasam,pulisherry andsambar.[496]Sadhya is a vegetarian meal, which is served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam.[497] Popular snacks includebanana chips, yam crisps,tapioca chips,Achappam,Unni appam andkuzhalappam.[498][499][500] Seafood specialties includekarimeen, prawns, shrimp and other crustacean dishes.[501]Thalassery Cuisine is varied and is a blend of many influences.
By the 21st century, almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala had either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals; includingPoorakkali, Padayani, Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, and Kilithattukali.[511] However,Kalaripayattu, regarded as "the mother of all martial arts in the world", is an exception and is practised as the indigenous martial sport.[512] Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race ofSnake boats.[511]
Kerala's culture and traditions, coupled with its varieddemographics, have made the state one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. In 2012,National Geographic'sTraveller magazine named Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world"[532][533][534] and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime".[535]Travel and Leisure also described Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century".[532][536] In 2012, it overtook theTaj Mahal to be the number one travel destination in Google's search trends for India.[537]CNN Travel listed Kerala among its '19 best places to visit in 2019'.[538] Kerala was named byTIME magazine in 2022 among the 50 extraordinary destinations to explore in its list of the World's Greatest Places.[539]
Kerala's beaches, backwaters, lakes, mountain ranges, waterfalls, ancient ports, palaces, religious institutions[540] and wildlife sanctuaries are major attractions for both domestic and international tourists.[541] The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala.[542][543] Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination compared to other states in the country.[544] In 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism an important industry and it was the first state in India to do so.[532] Marketing campaigns launched by theKerala Tourism Development Corporation, the government agency that oversees the tourism prospects of the state, resulted in the growth of the tourism industry.[545] Many advertisements branded Kerala with the taglineKerala, God's Own Country.[545] Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall.[545] In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourists, an increase of 23.7% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing popular destinations in the world.[546] In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark.[547]
Ayurvedic tourism has become very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies have played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of the Tourism Department.[544] Kerala is known for itsecotourism initiatives which include mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major activities.[548] The state's tourism industry is a major contributor to thestate's economy, growing at the rate of 13.3%.[549] The revenue from tourism increased five-fold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the₹ 190 billion mark in 2011. According to the Economic Times[550] Kerala netted a record revenue of INR 365280.1 million from the tourism sector in 2018, clocking an increase of Rs 28743.3 million from the previous year. Over 16.7 million tourists visited Kerala in 2018 as against 15.76 million the previous year, recording an increase of 5.9%. The industry provides employment to approximately 1.2 million people.[547]
^"Appendix-A: Detailed tables, Table (7): Literacy rate (in per cent) of persons of different age groups for each State/UT (persons, age-group (years): 7 & above, rural+urban (column 6))".Annual Report, Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) (July 2023 – June 2024)(PDF). National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India. 23 September 2024. pp. A-10.
^Srinivisa Iyengar, P. T. (1929).History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. Madras: Asian Educational Services. p. 515.ISBN978-8120601451.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^* Bindu Malieckal (2005) Muslims, Matriliny, and A Midsummer Night's Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India; The Muslim World Volume 95 Issue 2
^Milton J, Skeat WW, Pollard AW, Brown L (31 August 1982).The Indian Christians of St Thomas. Cambridge University Press. p. 171.ISBN0-521-21258-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^"Marine Fisheries".fisheries.kerala.gov.in. Department of Fisheries, Government of Kerala.Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved13 November 2015.
^abFrowde, Henry (1908–1909).Imperial Gazetteer of India (New ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.Archived from the original on 16 December 2008. Retrieved2 December 2020.
^Nair RR, Rajan B, Akiba S, Jayalekshmi P, Nair MK, Gangadharan P, Koga T, Morishima H, Nakamura S, Sugahara T (January 2009). "Background radiation and cancer incidence in Kerala, India-Karanagappally cohort study". Health Physics.PMID19066487.
^Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI—Ministry of Shipping) (2005)."Introduction to Inland Water Transport".IWAI (Ministry of Shipping). Archived fromthe original on 4 February 2005. Retrieved19 January 2006.
^abcdeBrenkert, A.; Malone, E. (2003). "Vulnerability and resilience of India and Indian states to climate change: a first-order approximation".Joint Global Change Research Institute.
^abcdefghGovernment of Kerala (2021).Economic Review 2020 – Volume I(PDF). Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala State Planning Board.Archived(PDF) from the original on 2 May 2021. Retrieved18 June 2021.
^Kumar KG (8 October 2007)."Jobless no more?".Business Line.Archived from the original on 6 November 2013. Retrieved16 November 2012.A study by K.C. Zacharia and S. Irudaya Rajan, two economists at the Centre for Development Studies (CDS), unemployment in Kerala has dropped from 19.1[%] in 2003 to 9.4[%] in 2007.
^Heller, Patrick; Törnquist, Olle (13 December 2021)."Making sense of Kerala".The Hindu. Archived fromthe original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved5 March 2022.Kerala has specific challenges: persistently high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment. More broadly, as the 21st century unfolds, it becomes increasingly clearer that the role of the State in supporting development must fundamentally change. First, in highly educated societies like Kerala, industrialisation is no longer the path to economic prosperity.
^SIDBI Report on Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Sector, 2010. Small Industries Development Bank of India. 2010.
^N. Rajeevan (March 2012). "A Study on the Position of Small and Medium Enterprises in Kerala vis a vis the National Scenario".International Journal of Research in Commerce, Economics and Management.2 (3).
^abMinistry Annual Report (2019–20)(PDF). New Delhi: Ministry of Road Transport & Highways Transport Research Wing, Government of India. 2020.Archived(PDF) from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved20 June 2021.
^Basic Road Statistics of India (2016–17)(PDF). New Delhi: Ministry of Road Transport & Highways Transport Research Wing, Government of India. 2019. pp. 7–18.Archived(PDF) from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved25 November 2020.
^abR Ramesh; R Purvaja; A Senthil Vel.Shoreline change assessment for Kerala coast(PDF). National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management, Ministry of Environment and Forests. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 30 May 2015. Retrieved30 May 2015.
^ab"Kerala HDR 2005".Human Development Report. Asia and the Pacific: United Nations. Retrieved30 May 2015.
^"Human Development Report 2005"(PDF).Human Development Report. Asia and the Pacific: United Nations. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 10 March 2011. Retrieved14 November 2015.
^Johnson, Barbara C. (2003)."The Cochin Jews Of Kerala". In Slapak, Orpa (ed.).The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities. Jerusalem: The Israel Museum. p. 27.ISBN9652781797.
^John Anthony McGuckin (15 December 2010). The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. pp. 377–. Retrieved 18 November 2012. John Wiley & Sons. 2010.ISBN978-1-4443-9254-8.
^Roy, Ranjan (1990). "Discovery of the Series Formula for π by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha".Mathematics Magazine.63 (5):291–306.doi:10.2307/2690896.JSTOR2690896.
^Pingree, David (1992), "Hellenophilia versus the History of Science",Isis,83 (4):554–63,Bibcode:1992Isis...83..554P,doi:10.1086/356288,JSTOR234257,S2CID68570164,One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400 A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read anymore theTransactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the serieswithout the calculus, but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case, the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution.
^"Missionaries led State to renaissance: Pinarayi".The Hindu. 13 November 2016.Inaugurating on Saturday the valedictory of the bicentenary celebration of the arrival of Church Mission Society (CMS) missionaries to the shores of Kerala, Mr. Vijayan said it was their pioneering work in the fields of education, literature, printing, publishing, women's education, education of the differently-abled and, in general, a new social approach through the inclusion of marginalised sections into the mainstream which brought the idea of 'equality' into the realm of public consciousness. This had raised the standard of public consciousness and paved the way for the emergence of the renaissance movements in the State.
^"Kerala to celebrate CMS mission".Church Mission Society. 9 November 2016. Retrieved4 April 2022.Indian President Pranab Mukherjee, visited CMS College in Kerala, the oldest college in India, and laid the foundation stone of the bicentenary block. He said, 'CMS college is a pioneer of modern education in Kerala. It has been the source of strong currents of knowledge and critical inquiry that have moulded the scholastic and socio-cultural landscape of Kerala and propelled the State to the forefront of social development.'
^District Handbooks of Kerala(PDF). Department of Information & Public Relations Government of Kerala. March 2003. pp. 19–20. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 19 March 2009. Retrieved4 April 2022.
^Sukumār Al̲ikkōṭȧ (1979).Mahakavi Ulloor. Sahitya Akademi. p. 52. Retrieved18 November 2012.
^Indian and Foreign Review. Publications Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. 1983. p. 25. Retrieved18 November 2012.
^Ranjith KS (2004). Nair PR, Shaji H (eds.).Rural Libraries of Kerala(PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. pp. 20–21.ISBN978-8187621812. Retrieved28 December 2008.
Chandran, V. P., ed. (2018).Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus – 2019 (in Malayalam).Kozhikode: Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited.ASIN8182676444.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.png)
.svg)
