Kebabs consist of cut upground meat, sometimes with vegetables and various other accompaniments according to the specific recipe. Although kebabs are typically cooked on askewer over a fire, some kebab dishes are oven-baked in a pan, or prepared as astew such astas kebab.[3][4] The traditional meat for kebabs is most oftenlamb meat, but regional recipes may includebeef,goat,chicken,fish, or evenpork (depending on whether or not there are specificreligious prohibitions).
The word kebab has ancient origins. It was popularized in the West by Turks to refer to a range of grilled and broiled meat, which may be cooked on skewers, including stews, meatballs, and many other forms.[3][5]
While the wordkebab orshish kebab may sometimes be used in English as a culinary term that refers to any type of small chunks of meat cooked on a skewer,[3]kebab is mainly associated with a diversity of meat dishes that originated inPersia andAnatolia.[5]
This cuisine has spread around the world, in parallel with Muslim influence.[3] According toIbn Battuta, aMaghrebi traveller, kebab was served in the royal houses during theDelhi Sultanate (1206–1526), and even commoners would enjoy it for breakfast withnaan.[12] Kebab dishes have been adopted and integrated with local cooking styles and innovations, from the now-ubiquitous doner kebab fast food, to the many variations of shish kebab, such as thesatays ofSoutheast Asia.[3]
Chuan-style lamb kebab sticks sold by a street vendor
Chuan (Chinese:串;pinyin:chuàn), often referred to as "chuan" inMandarin throughout the north, or kawap (كاۋاپ) inUyghur, is a variation of kebab originating from theUyghur people in the western province ofXinjiang and a popular dish inChinese Islamic cuisine. The dish has since spread across the rest of the country and become a popularstreet food.
Although the most traditional form of chuan uses lamb or mutton, other types of meat, such as chicken, beef, pork, and seafood, may be used as well. Small pieces of meat are skewered and either roasted or deep-fried. Common spices and condiments includecumin called "ziran",pepper,sesame, andsesame oil.
Gyro kebab sandwiches in Greece served with fixings andtzatziki sauce inpita bread
While the history ofstreet foods inGreece goes back to ancient times, the iconic Greekgyros andsouvlaki as it is known today arose only following theSecond World War. Introduced toAthens in the 1950s by Greek refugees from Turkey and the Middle East, gyros was originally known simply asdöner kebab. It is typically served as a sandwich rolled inpita bread, or on a plate, with french fries and various salads and sauces such astzatziki. Later in the 1960s, vendors also began selling dishes in the same style made with souvlaki, which resembles Turkish shish kebab, but is usually made with pork.[16]
Around the same time, the Greek wordgyros replaceddöner kebab, and the Greek style of the dish spread to become popular, particularly in North America, and various other parts of the world.[17]
In contrast to other areas of Greece, in Athens, both types of sandwich may be calledsouvlaki, with the skewered meat being calledkalamaki.
Although gyros is unquestionably of Middle Eastern origin, the issue of whether modern-day souvlaki came to Greece via Turkish cuisine, and should be considered a Greek styling of shish kebab, or is a contemporary revival of Greek tradition dating as far back as 17th century BCMinoan civilization,[18] is a topic of sometimes heated debate, at least between Greeks and Turks.[19] While English speakers may refer to souvlaki skewers as kebabs,[20] they are not properly called that in Greece.
West Asia and North Africa
South Caucasus
BothArmenian andAzerbaijani cuisine feature oblong kofta-style mincemeats kebabs known aslula or lyulya kebab, while Armenian cuisine refers to shish-style kebabs askhorovats,[21][22] and doner kebab asKarsi khorovats after the city ofKars which became known for the dish during the time of the Ottoman Empire.[22]
There are several distinct Persian varieties of kabab (Persian:کباب). Kabab may be served with either steamed,saffronedbasmati or Persianrice and calledchelow kabab (چلوکباب), which is considered thenational dish of Iran.[23] It may also be served with the various types of bread that are the most commonly eaten in Iran, such aslavash.
It is served with the basicIranian meal accompaniments, in addition to grilled tomatoes on the side of the rice and butter on top of the rice. It is an old northern tradition (probably originating inTehran) that a raw egg yolk should be placed on top of the rice as well, though this is strictly optional, and most restaurants will not serve the rice this way unless it is specifically requested. "Somagh", powderedsumac, is also made available and its use varies based on tastes to a small dash on the rice or a heavy sprinkling on both rice and meat, particularly when used with red (beef/veal/lamb) meat.
At Persian restaurants, the combination of onekabab barg and onekabab koobideh is typically calledSoltani, meaning "sultan's feast". The combination of one kabab barg, onejujeh kabab and kabab koobideh is typically calledShah abbasi, meaning "Shah Abbas' meal". The traditional beverage of choice to accompany Persian kabab isdoogh, a sour yogurt drink with mint and salt.
In the oldbazaar tradition, the rice (which is covered with a tin lid) and accompaniments are served first, immediately followed by the kababs, which are brought to the table by the waiter, who holds several skewers in his left hand, and a piece of flat bread (typically nan-e lavash) in his right. A skewer is placed directly on the rice and while holding the kebab down on the rice with the bread, the skewer is quickly pulled out. With the two most common kababs,barg andkoobideh, two skewers are always served. In general, bazaar kabab restaurants only serve these two varieties, though there are exceptions.
InIranian Azerbaijan, "Binab (also Bonab) Kababi" is very famous in Iranian Azerbaijani local cuisine for its large size.[24] It is named after the city of Binab in East Azerbaijan province. This kabab and other types (e.g., Shishlik, Kubide, Berge, Gelin, etc.) can be served alone or with rice and fresh salad on the side. In this region Kababs come usually with yogurt, hot bread, tomato, onion, parsley and paprika-salt, and tarragon.
Iranian Kabab Koobideh (Bonab style)
Kabab koobideh (کباب کوبیده) itkūbide (کوبیده) is an Iranianminced meat kabab which is made from ground lamb, beef, or chicken, often mixed withparsley andchopped onions.
Kabab Koobideh contains: ground meat, onion, salt, pepper, turmeric, and seasoning. These ingredients are mixed together until the mixture becomes smooth and sticky. One egg is added to help the mix stick together. The mixture is then pressed around a skewer. Koobideh Kabab is typically 18 to 20 centimeters (7–8 in) long.
Kabāb-e Barg (Persian:کباب برگ) is a Persian style barbecued lamb, chicken or beef kabab dish. The main ingredients ofKabab Barg – a short form of this name – are fillets of beef tenderloin, lamb shank or chicken breast, onions and olive oil.
Marinade is prepared by the mixture of half a cup of olive oil, threeonions,garlic, half teaspoonsaffron, salt and black pepper. One kilogram of lamb is cut into 1 cm thick and 4–5 cm long pieces. It should be marinated overnight in refrigerator, and the container should be covered. The next day, the lamb is threaded on long, thin metal skewers. It is brushed with marinade and is barbecued for 5–10 minutes on each side.
Jūjeh Kabāb (جوجهکباب) consists of pieces of chicken firstmarinated in minced onion and lemon juice withsaffron then grilled over a fire. It is sometimes served with grilled tomato and pepper. Jujeh Kabab is one of the most popular Persian dishes.
Kabab Bakhtiari is a combination of Jujeh kabab (chicken kabab) and Kabab barg (beef or lamb meat) on the same skewer. Its name comes from theBakhtiari region of Iran.
Kabab Kenjeh, also known as Chenjeh (کنجهکباب,چنجه) is a kabab traditionally made with chunks of marinated lamb meat. It is typically served with grilled tomatoes and rice or bread.[25]
Kabab Torsh is an Iranian Kabab from the northern provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran, renowned for its sour, pomegranate based seasoning.[26]
Kabab Lari, Kabab Tabei (Pan Kabab), Dande Kabab, Kabab Shandiz, Shishlik Kabab, Kabab Ghafghazi, Kabab Soltani, Kabob Vaziri, Kabob Loghmeh, Taas Kabab, Mahi Kabab (Fish Kabab) and Kabab Jegar (Sheep Liver Kaba) are among other types of Persian Kababs popular in Iran.[citation needed]
Iraq
Traditional Iraqi Kebab, made out of ground lamb and known for its oily texture
Several types of kebab are popular inIraqi cuisine, although the word kebab in local use is reserved for skewers of spiced ground lamb, traditionally grilled on natural wood charcoal to give the kebab its special flavor. Skewers of grilled marinated meat chunks are called tikka.[5]
The Levant
Several varieties of kebabs can be found inLevantine cuisine. Among the most common areshish taouk, which are grilled chicken skewers marinated in olive oil and spices, andlahem meshwi, charcoal-grilled skewers of prime lamb cubes lightly seasoned with herbs.[5]
The Syrian city ofAleppo is said to have at least twenty-six versions of kebab halabi or Aleppo kebab, including kebab cooked with cherries; with aubergine; withchili,parsley andpine-nuts; and withtruffles.[27]
Mizrahi Jews brought various types of grilled meat from their native Middle Eastern countries to Israel, where they have become an essential part ofIsraeli cuisine.[5] Among the most popular are skewers of elongated spiced ground meat, called kabab (Hebrew:קבב), which have become a staple dish of meat restaurants and the main dish of the traditional holiday barbecues, alongside theshishlik. They are commonly made of beef, though lamb is also occasionally used, and are almost always served with the localpita bread.
Shawarma, although not considered a kebab in most countries of theLevant, is another very popular type of grilled meat preparation that characterizes this region.
Egypt
Several varieties of kebab are popular inEgyptian cuisine, although the word kebab in local use is reserved for skewers of grilled marinated meat chunks. Skewers of grilled seasoned ground meat are called kofta.Shish taouk, which are skewers of grilled marinated chicken chunks, are another popular variety of kebab in Egypt. All kebabs are grilled on charcoal to give them their special flavor.[5]
Beyti kebab served withpilavŞiş kebap with "şehriyeli pilav" (orzo pilaf), onions with sumac, a grilled pepper, a slice of tomato (also grilled) and rucula leavesCağ kebabıİskender kebab
Adana kebap (or kıyma kebabı) is a long, hand-minced meat kebab mounted on a wide iron skewer and grilled over charcoal. Named after the Turkish city ofAdana, the kebab is generally "hot" or piquant. The traditional Adana kebab is made using lamb, with a high fatty content cooked over hot coals. Only three ingredients are used in a proper Adana kebab, minced lamb, redcapsicum (pepper) and salt.
Ali Paşa kebabı, "Ali Pasha kebab" – cubed lamb with tomato, onion and parsley wrapped inphyllo.[28]
Alinazik – Ground meat kebabsautéed in a saucepan, with garlic, yogurt and eggplants added.
Beyti kebap – Ground lamb or beef, seasoned and grilled on a skewer, often served wrapped inlavash and topped withtomato sauce and yogurt, traced back to the famous kebab houseBeyti inIstanbul and particularly popular in Turkey's larger cities.
Buğu kebabı – Steam kebab, is aTurkishstew which is cooked in a pan or an earthenware casserole. The casserole's lid is sealed in order to cook the meat in its own juices. The dish is prepared withpearl onions, garlic,thyme and other spices. InTekirdağ, it is served withcumin; inİzmir, it is served withmastic.[29]
Cağ kebap, 'spoke kebab' – Cubes of lamb roasted first on acağ (a horizontalrotating spit) and then on a skewer, a specialty ofErzurum region with recently rising popularity.
Ciğer kebabı, 'liver kebab' - usually eaten with sliced onions, salad and bread.
Çökertme kebabı – Sirloin veal kebap stuffed with yogurt and potatoes.
Çöp şiş, "small skewer kebab" – a speciality ofSelçuk andGermencik nearEphesus, pounded boneless meat with tomatoes and garlic marinated with black pepper, thyme and oil on wooden skewers.[30]
Döner kebap, literally "rotating kebab" in Turkish, is sliced lamb, beef, or chicken, slowly roasted on a vertical rotating spit. The Middle Easternshawarma, Mexicantacos al pastor, and Greekgyros are all derived from the Turkish döner kebab, which was invented inBursa in the 19th century.[31] The German-style döner kebab sandwich, sometimes called simply "a kebab" in English, wasintroduced by Turkish immigrants in Berlin in the 1970s, and has become one of the most populartake-away foods in Germany and much of Europe. It is commonly sold by Turks, and considered a Turkish-German specialty, in Germany.[32]
İskender kebap – döner kebab served with yogurt, tomato sauce and butter, originated inBursa. This kebab was invented by İskender Efendi in 1867. He was inspired from Cağ kebab and turned it from horizontal to vertical.
İslim kebabı, 'steamed kebab' – Another version of the aubergine kebab without its skin, marinated in sunflower oil.[28][30]
Kuzu şiş – Shish prepared with marinated milk-fed lamb meat.
Manisa Kebab – This Manisa region version of the kebab is smaller and flat size shish meat on the sliced pide bread, flavored with butter, and stuffed with tomato, garlic and green pepper.
Patlıcan kebabı, 'aubergine kebab' – Special kebap meat marinated in spices and served witheggplant (aubergine), hot pide bread and a yogurt sauce.[30]
Shish kebap – is a dish consisting of small cubes of meat or fish threaded on a skewer and grilled.Şiş, pronounced[ʃiʃ], is a Turkish word meaning "sword" or "skewer".[33][34] According to tradition, the dish was invented by medieval soldiers who used their swords to grill meat over open-field fires.[35][36] In Turkey, shish kebab does not normally contain vegetables, though they may be cooked on a separate skewer.[37] It can be prepared with lamb, beef, chicken, or fish, but pork is not used. ThePontian Greeks made a dish similar to shish kebabs, although theirs were cooked in a saucepan.[38][39]
Testi kebabı, 'earthenware-jug kebab' – is a dish fromCentral Anatolia and the Mid-WesternBlack Sea region, consisting of a mixture of meat and vegetables cooked in a clay pot or jug over fire (testi meansjug in Turkish). The pot is sealed with bread dough or foil and is broken when serving.[40]
South Asia has a rich kebab tradition with a great variety of different kebab dishes. Many modern kebabs inBangladeshi,Indian andPakistani cuisine trace their origins back to the time of theMughals and the strong influence ofMughlai cuisine. Kebab dishes common to one or more of these countries include:
Afghan kebab (Pashto/Dari: کباب) is most often found in restaurants and outdoor vendor stalls. The most widely used meat is lamb. Recipes differ with every restaurant. InAfghan cuisine, kebab is served with naan, rarely rice, and customers have the option to sprinklesumac orghora, dried ground sour grapes, on their kebab. The quality of kebab is solely dependent on the quality of the meat. Pieces of fat from the sheep's tail (jijeq) are usually added with the lambskewers to add extra flavor.
Chapli kebab, a specialty of Eastern Afghanistan, is a patty made from beef mince. It is prepared flat and round, and served with naan. The original recipe of chapli kebab dictates a half meat (or less), half flour mixture, which renders it lighter in taste and less expensive.
In Bangladesh they make variations of kebab (Bengali কাবাব or "Kabab"). In the oldMughal province ofBengal Subah's capital of Dhaka, various Pakistani and Indian-influenced dishes started to be made. Amongst these were kebabs. InBangladeshi cuisine, most kebabs are made using fish or beef.
Modern-day kebabs in India mostly trace their origin to the influence ofMughlai cuisine.[3] Some Indian kebabs have very specific geographic attributions, such as Kakori kebab, which is made of finely ground, soft mince and attributed to the city ofKakori inUttar Pradesh, where legend has it that it was first prepared for old and toothless pilgrims.[41]
In Pakistan kebabs trace back their origin during the time of the MughalsMughlai cuisine, and their influence on thecuisine of modern-day Pakistan. There are all sorts of kebab varieties such as seekh, chapli, shammi and other forms of roasted and grilled meats. As Pakistan is a predominantly Muslim country, pork is not used. Instead meats like beef, chicken, lamb, fish and sometimesbuff are used in the making of kebabs.
Satay is a kebab of seasoned, skewered, and grilled meat, served with a sauce.[42] It is a dish ofSoutheast Asia, particularly Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand.[43]
Satay may consist of diced or sliced chicken, goat, lamb, mutton, beef, pork, fish, other meats, ortofu. Traditionally skewers from the midrib of thecoconut palm frond are used, althoughbamboo skewers are often used instead. It is grilled or barbecued over a wood or charcoal fire with spicy seasonings. It may be served with various sauces, though most often a combination ofsoy andpeanut sauce.[44] Hence, peanut sauce is often called satay sauce.[45]
Satay was developed byJavanese street vendors as a unique adaptation of Indian kebab.[43][46] The introduction of satay, and other now-iconic dishes such astongseng andgulai kambing based on meats such as goat and lamb, coincided with an influx ofIndian andArab traders and immigrants starting in the 18th century.[47] It is available almost anywhere in Indonesia, where it has become anational dish.[48][49][50] In Sri Lanka, it has become a staple of the local diet as a result of theinfluences from the local Malay community.[51]
Sub-Saharan Africa
South Africa
Sosatie (pluralsosaties) is a traditionalSouth African dish of meat (usually lamb or mutton) cooked on skewers.[52] The term derives fromsate ("skewered meat") andsaus (spicy sauce). It is ofCape Malay origin. Sosatie recipes vary, but commonly the ingredients can include cubes of lamb, beef, chicken, dried apricots, red onions and mixed peppers.
West Africa
Suya is a spicy kebab which is a popular food item in West Africa that originated inNigeria.[53][54] It is traditionally prepared by theHausa people ofNigeria,Cameroon,Niger,Ghana and some parts of Sudan (where it is calledagashe).
Kyinkyinga is common and popular inWest Africa.[55][56] It is aGhanaiandish, very similar to or synonymous with the Hausasuya kebab, also known assooya, tsinga, chichinga, tsire agashi, chachanga ortankora.[57][58][59]
Pinchitos orPinchos Morunos is aMoorish-derived kebab dish inSpanish cuisine. The namepinchitos is used in the southernSpanish autonomous communities ofAndalusia andExtremadura. They consist of small cubes of meat threaded onto a skewer (Spanish:pincho) which are traditionally cooked over charcoalbraziers. Similar dishes in North Africa or otherMuslim majority countries tend to be lamb-based, but pork and chicken are the most popular meats for the dish in Spain. Pinchitos are also extremely popular inVenezuela, due to the heavy influenceSpain had in Venezuelan cuisine during many years.
Shashlik is similar to, or sometimes a synonym for, shish kebab. It is popular in many countries, particularly inEastern and Central Europe, theCaucasus, and theBaltics. In non-Muslim-majority countries, shashlik and equivalent dishes likeRomanianfrigărui[5] may sometimes be prepared with pork.
Kebab cuisine has spread around the world together with Muslim influence.[3] Although non-MuslimWesterners may be increasingly familiar with some of the many other international kebab dishes, only two have become an established and widely popular part of the culture in many Western countries. In English, the wordkebab commonly refers toshish kebab and, outside of North America, todöner kebab or related fast-food dishes.[5] These dishes are also served in many other countries, where they may have different names.[67][68]
Kebabs have also met opposition: in Italy, several cities banned kebab shops in order to preserve Italian culinary culture.[69][70] Many protested against these bans as "racist".[69] Kebabs have also been invoked in anti-immigrant rhetoric, especially in online contexts, such as the"remove kebab" slogan.[71][72]
In English,kebab, or in North America alsokabob, often occurring asshish kebab, is now a culinary term for small pieces of meat cooked on a skewer.[3] The wordkebab, most likely derived from Persian,[6] has been used with various spellings in this sense since at least the 17th century,[14] while theOxford English Dictionary records the earliest known publication of the termshish kebab, derived from Turkish:şiş kebap, in 1914.[73]
There are two etymologies suggested for Shish Kabob in the Persian dictionary of Dehkhoda: Shish being the Persian word "Shish" for the number 6, which refers to the original six pieces of meat of a standard Kabob skewer, or "Shish" being driven from Late Middle Persian "Sich" meaning a skewer. The word "Kabob" is most probably driven from the Arhameic word kbābā (to roast).[74]In many English-speaking countries, it refers to the now well-known dish prepared with marinated meat or seafood together with vegetables such as onions, tomatoes, and bell peppers threaded onto the skewer, also sometimes known asshashlik.[75] This preparation is different from the typical Turkish shish kebab style, where vegetables are usually cooked on a separate skewer.[37] Shish kebabs are customarily prepared in homes and restaurants, and are usually cooked on a grill or barbecue, or roasted in an oven.
The wordkebab may also be used as a general term in English to describe any similar-looking skewered food, such asbrochette,satay,souvlaki,yakitori, or numerous small chunks of any type of food served on a stick. This is different from its use in the West Asia, whereshish (Persian/Mazandarani: شیش,Turkish:şiş) is the word for skewer, whilekebab comes from the word for grilling.[5]
English speakers from countries outside North America may also use the wordkebab generally to mean the popularfast food version of the Turkish döner kebab,[67] or the related shawarma or gyros, and the sandwiches made with them, available fromkebab shops as take-away meals. This usage may be found in some non-English parts of Europe as well. In North America, the Greek variant gyros is most widely known.[citation needed]
The döner kebab originated in 19th century Turkey, but it became widely popular in the West only in the latter half of the 20th century. Many layers of meat are stacked onto a large vertical rotating spit; the outer surface is gradually cooked and sliced off, and typically served either mixed or topped with vegetables and sauces in a sandwich made withpita or otherflatbreads. Certain regional variants also include cheeses. Sandwiches served in the same manner, but with other meats or cheese, may also sometimes be called a "kebab". It is available in most parts of Europe, and many other countries, though sometimes with different names or serving styles. In Germany, the highly popular sandwich, introduced by Turkish immigrants, is called aDöner, though Arab shops there serveshawarma.[76]
^The Editors of the American Heritage Dictionaries."Appendix II – Semitic Roots".American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Retrieved5 June 2016.
^The Rough Guide to Europe on a Budget. Rough Guides. 2017.ISBN9780241307816.Slightly up-market though still good value, sleek kebab restaurant, serving Armenian and Pontian dishes.
^abChantal Saint-Blancat (2014). "Italy". In Jocelyne Cesari (ed.).The Oxford Handbook of European Islam. p. 276.One of the best ways to preserve Italian traditions and culinary culture has been the 'anti-kebab regulations' introduced in Brescia and Bergamo, in Bussolengo closed to Venice, and in Prato and Lucca in Tuscany...Italian civil society reacted firmly to these discriminatory practices... formed a coalition of protest against 'racist acts' and 'apartheid climax' using the defence of human rights
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