Kazakh–Dzungar Wars
Date 1635–1756 Location Kazakh Khanate,Dzungar Khanate Result Incolclusive[1]
Belligerents
Kazakh Khanate[a] Kazakh Jüzes Supported: Khanate of Bukhara	Dzungar Khanate Supported: Kalmyk Khanate
Commanders and leaders
Salqam Jangir Khan (WIA) Abul Khair Khan Nauryzbai Batyr Qabanbai Batyr Ablai Khan (POW) Raiymbek Batyr Bogenbay Batyr Yalangtoʻsh Bakhodir	Erdeni Batur Galdan Boshugtu Khan Tsewang Rabtan Galdan Tseren Septen Lama Dorji   Ayuka Khan

TheKazakh–Dzungar Wars were a series of military conflicts between the Kazakhjüzes (three tribal confederations of theKazakh Khanate) and theDzungar Khanate lasting from the 17th to the mid-18th century.

In the 15th century, theOirats—a Western Mongolian people who had recently established their own state—began expanding into the territory of present-dayKazakhstan. Seeking to control key trade routes and fertile agricultural oases inJetisu, they launched repeated raids intoCentral Asia, particularly against theUzbek Khanate, ruled byAbu'l-Khayr Khan. In 1457, the Oirat forces under Uch-Temur Taishi decisivelydefeated Abu'l-Khayr Khan's army near the Uzbek capitol of Sighnaq after a prolonged battle. Forced to retreat behind the city walls, Abulkhair concluded a peace agreement with the Oirats, the terms of which, though not explicitly recorded, were reportedly humiliating for theShaybanids. The Oirats plundered and devastated cities such asTashkent,Turkistan, and Shakhrukhia before their withdrawal. Following the defeat, Abulkhair temporarily abandoned Turkistan and returned to the steppes of Desht-i-Kipchak, later reappearing in theSyr Darya region in 1460.^[2][3][4][5]

During this period of political instability, twoChinggisid sultans—Janibek Khan andKerei Khan—disillusioned with Abulkhair's rule, led their followers eastward to Semirechye, settling inMoghulistan. There, they founded theKazakh Khanate in 1465. Their followers, who broke away from the Uzbek Khanate, were initially referred to as "Uzbek Cossacks" (from theTurkicqazaq, meaning "free"),^[6] later simply known asKazakhs (qazaqtar). In the mid-15th century, the first clashes occurred between the Oirats and Kazakhs led by Kerei and Janibek.

According to the historical chronicleBadai al-Waqai (Persian:بدايع‌الوقايع,lit. 'Amazing Events'), written by the late-medieval Tajik historianWasifi [fa] during the reign ofTayir Khan in the early 16th century, a fortress named Jatan (or Jashan—its exact location remains unverified by modern scholarship) was constructed to defend against Oirat incursions.

The internal fragmentation of the Kazakh Khanate in the late 16th and early 17th centuries weakened its position and contributed to the rise of a new regional power—theDzungar Khanate, established in the early 17th century. The first phase of clashes between the Kazakhs and the Dzungars began in 1635, shortly after the formation of the Dzungar state.

In 1635, Erdeni Batur, the ruler of the Dzungar Khanate, saw an opportunity with the Kazakhs were politically divided, and he decided to launch a major punitive campaign on 1640. Their target was theMiddle Jüz of the Kazakhs.Jangir Khan, the leader of the Middle Jüz, managed to gather only 600 loyal warriors to face this overwhelming invasion force.

From there,Jangir Khan, participated in a major battle against the Dzungarian troops in 1635 at theBattle of Urmity.^[7] Which was one of the first major recorded clashes between Jangir Khan and the Dzungars. Historical accounts suggest it was a significant defeat for the Kazakhs. Jangir Khan was reportedly captured during the battle. His captivity lasted for a period (some sources suggest several years) before he managed to escape or was released, an experience that would have given him direct insight into Dzungar military tactics and politics.^[8]

Later in 1643, theBattle of Orbulaq took place in the gorge of the Orbulaq River, led byJangir Khan with the support of 15,000 to 20,000 soldiers,^[9] aided by theEmir ofSamarkandJalantos Bahadur, who was from the Kazakh clan of Tortkara, successfully defeated Dzungars (2,000-15,000) using Volleys of musket fire cut down the advancing Dzungars, while archers and warriors with melee weapons repelled any who managed to get close. The terrain and fortifications allowed the Kazakhs to inflict massive casualties while minimizing their own losses.^[10] Later they will fight in 1652 with a costly stalemate on 1652 with TheBattle of Shiyeli, While some Kazakh traditions record it as a victory, it was an extremely bloody and costly one. Jangir Khan was wounded during the fighting. The battle was so devastating for both sides that it effectively created a prolonged stalemate, halting major Dzungar offensive campaigns for several decades. The heavy casualties prevented the Kazakhs from capitalizing on their defensive success, making it a pyrrhic victory at best.^[11][12]

After a period of relative stability following the battles ofOrbulaq (1643) andShiyeli (1652), the Dzungar Khanate was consolidated and massively strengthened underGaldan Boshoght (r. 1678-1697). Galdan was a ambitious ruler who had received military training and political backing from the Tibetan Buddhist hierarchy, even holding the title of Boshoghtu Khan (Khan by Divine Grace).^[13] He unified the Oirat tribes and sought to expand his empire westward, directly confronting the Kazakh Khanate.^[14]

After Tauke Khan came to power, the Kazakh Khanate began to actively strengthen itself, which caused concern for the Dzungar Khan Galdan. In response, Galdan attempted to weaken the influence of the Kazakhs and encourage them to adopt Lamaism. To this end, he sent envoys to the Kazakh rulers with an offer to unite and recognize Lamaism, but the Kazakhs refused. This led to conflict between the two sides, as the Kazakhs did not want to renounce their traditional beliefs. During this conflict, Galdan's troops captured a number of cities that had previously recognized Tauq's authority, including Sairam, Menkent, Kharasman, and others. The only exceptions were the cities of Turkestan and Tashkent. Turkestan remained under Tauke's control, while Tashkent voluntarily recognized Galdan's authority. The Dzungars also captured one of Tauke's sons, whom they took to Lhasa, confirming Galdan's serious intentions to impose Lamaism on the Kazakhs.^[15]

In 1680, the invasion by Galdan Boshugtu Khan started with Galdan's forces of about 25,000 to 50,000 men sweeping through theTengeri ranges, which were traditional summer pastures and strategic strongholds for the Kazakhs. This move secured his southern flank and gave him a base of operations of Semirechye and South Kazakhstan; the Kazakh rulerTauke Khan was defeated on the Ili River valley, at a site calledOrqaq,^[16] and his son but rather his grandson Abdulmambet, the son of (Tauke Khan's eldest son or Qaiyp Sultan)^[17] was taken prisoner. As a result of the campaigns of 1683–1684, the Dzungars seizedSayram,Tashkent,Shymkent, andTaraz. The success was so profound that contemporary sources describe it as one of the darkest periods for the Kazakhs. The Dzungar occupation was reportedly brutal, leading to widespread loss of life, enslavement, and the destruction of livelihoods.^[18] After his victories, Galdan did not directly administer these cities in the modern sense. Instead, he established Dzungar hegemony, forcing the Kazakh Khanate into a state of vassalage. With The Kazakhs, particularly the Senior and Middle Jüzes, were forced to pay an annual tribute to the Dzungar Khanate. This often took the form of goods, livestock, and even human hostages to ensure compliance and The Kazakh Khanate remained politically fractured. While Tauke Khan is remembered as a last great unifier, his authority was severely weakened after the defeats. The Dzungars skillfully played the different Jüzes and sultans against each other to prevent a unified resistance from forming.^[19] Later In 1687, a war broke out between the Dzungar Khanate and the Khalkhas against the Khalkha Prince, Chikundorj. It eventually escelated to the warwith Qing Empire. TheKazakh Khanate, before the death ofTauke Khan in 1718, managed to repeatedly resist the Dzungar invaders.

The campaigns led by the Dzungar troops in 1710–1719 caused a dispute and destabilization between the Kazakh clans, as each

year the fear of a Dzungar invasion grew. Moreover, militarily the Dzungar Khanate represented a serious threat for theRussia, with the Failure or Buzholz's expedition and even more so for the Kazakhs with the Previous war. Compared to some Asians who were used to traditional warfare, the Dzungars led byTsewang Rabtan, who had a large army, for the first time began using firearms and artillery at the end of the 17th century, as they bought them from Russian gunsmiths and cast them off with a help ofJohan Gustaf Renat, a former Swedish soldier who was held as a captive after being kidnapped by Dzungars during an expedition in Siberia. While the Kazakhs were armed with bows, sabers, and spears, these were largely inferior to the Dzungar weaponry, with only few Kazakh warriors being equipped with rifles.^[20]

The invasion by Dzungars crippled the strength of the Kazakhs. Using their military superiority, the Dzungar troops temporarily seized part ofZhetysu, and the advancing forces also reached theSarysu River in Central Kazakhstan. This sparked an alarm among the Kazakhs, and encouraged famous elders,biys, people'sbatyrs, and the most far-sightedChingizids, to make efforts to unite the military and civilian potential of the three Juzes. The firstKurultai was held in the summer of 1710 in the Karakum district. TheKurultai set up a general Kazakh militia that was led byBogenbai, who was seen as a prominent figure by others.^[21]

In 1711, a military force of the three Juzes managed to repulse the attacks. As a result, the Dzungars retreated to the east. In 1712, the Kazakh troopsinvaded the territory of Dzungaria, which ended in a failure with the Dzungars repelling the Kazakh incursion. This failure demonstrated that while the Kazakhs had achieved a new level of political unity, translating that into immediate military success against the well-organized and technologically superior Dzungar army was a significant challenge.^[22] However disagreements between the rulers of the three Juzes, including the Middle Juz that was led by three Khans, Bolat, Semyon, and Abulmambet occurred the Dzungars took advantage in 1714 with another suddeninvasion of Kazakhstan, The invasion was successful. Dzungar forces routed Kazakh resistance and advanced, likely reclaiming and solidifying control over the strategic pastures of the Ili River basin and parts of Semirechye (Zhetysu). This campaign reinforced the tributary status of the Kazakhs and weakened the momentum gained from the Karakum Council.^[23][24][25] A Kazakh militia in the spring of 1717 at the district of theRiver Ayaguz led by Kaip and Abulkhair Khan were defeated in theBattle of Ayagoz, where 30,000 Kazakhs were attacked by a small Dzungar border detachment numbering only 1,000 men, who tore down trees in the gorge and sat in an improvised trench for three days supporting each other while delaying the Kazakh army. On the last day, the Dzungar force of 1,500 people defeated the Kazakhs, who, despite overwhelming superiority in numbers and in firearms, could not withstand the Dzungar's brutal penetrating strike that involved a mounted horse attack and subsequent hand-to-hand combat which caused them to retreat.^[26][27][28] Then they attacked the Kazakhs atYuruktau and won, wounding Abulkhair khan in the process.^[29]

Later the death of Khan Tauke in 1718 shattered the nascent Kazakh unity. The Jüzes fell into a dispute over succession, and the centralized command structure collapsed.^[30] Seizing the opportunity presented by Kazakh disunity after Tauke's death, Tsewang Rabtan launched a new, massive invasion meeting the now-divided Kazakh forces. Unlike the united army envisioned at the Karakum Council, the Kazakh forces were likely disjointed, with different Jüzes and sultans acting with limited coordination. They gathered at Jana-Korgan for a desperate defense. The most devastating defeat occurred for the Kazakhs at their position at theJana-Korgan Disaster the Kazakhs suffered a catastrophic defeat, The Dzungar victory was so complete that it paved the way for the even more devastating invasion of 1723-1726, known as the "Great Disaster" (Aqtaban Shubyryndy).

The death of Khan Tauke in 1718 left the Kazakhs without a recognized leader and plunged them into internecine strife. For the next several years, the Kazakh hordes were preoccupied with their internal rivalries, while the Dzungar ruler Tsewang Rabtan carefully prepared his forces for a decisive strike. The Kazakhs, divided and unaware of the gathering storm, were utterly unprepared for what was to come. The foreign policy situation for the Kazakh Khan at the end of the 17th and early 18th century was difficult. From the west, the VolgaKalmyks and theYaik Cossacks constantly raided the Kazakhs, with theSiberian Cossacks andBashkirs from the north,Bukhara and theKhiva people from the south, but the main military threat came from the east, the side of the Dzungar Khanate, whose frequent military incursions into the Kazakh lands in the early 1720s was an on alarming scale. A fearsome power in the east of the Dzungar Khanate, the Qing dynasty, waited for a favorable opportunity to eliminate the Dzungars.^[31]Although a newDzungar–Qing war began in 1717 and lasted until 1720,Tsewang Rabtan continued military operations against the

Kazakhs. In late 1722, after the death of theKangxi Emperor, who had been at war with the Dzungars for a long time, a truce was established on the border with the Qing dynasty, which allowed forTsewang Rabtan to focus more on the Kazakh lands using interior lines and swift cavalry, launched a massive, multi-pronged invasion. They caught the Kazakhs completely by surprise during a period of perceived peace. The Kazakhs were dispersed in their spring pastures, with their horses weakened from winter. The aggression by the Dzungar Khanate, often referred by the Kazakhs as the "Years of the Great Disaster", that brought suffering, hunger, destruction of moral values, and caused an irreversible damage to the development of effective civilian force where thousands of men, women, and children were captured and imprisoned. With no unified army to meet them, the Dzungar forces sliced through Kazakh territories. The disunited Kazakh detachments were easily overwhelmed and destroyed in piecemeal engagements. The Kazakh clans, who paid a heavy price for their incompetent sultans and khans, under the pressure from the Dzungar troops were forced to abandon centuries-old inhabited land which led to displacement of part of the Kazakhs from the Middle Juz to the obstruction of the Central Asian khans. Many tribes of the Senior Juz also retreated to theSyr Darya river where they crossed it and headed towardKhujand. Kazakhs of the Younger Juz migrated along theYaik,Ory, andYrgyz rivers to the borders of Russia. As the conflict raged on, part of the Kazakhs of the Middle Juz settled in closer to theTobolsk Governorate.^[32]

The "Years of the Great Disaster" (1723–1727) as they're known because of their destructive consequences which are often compared to the Mongol invasions of the beginning of the 13th century, the Dzungar military aggression significantly influenced the international situation in Central Asia. The thousands of approaching families to the boundaries of Central Asia and the relations with the Volga Kalmyks have worsened relations in the region. Kazahks, Karakalpaks, Uzbeks, attacking the weakened Kazakhs, worsened their already critical situation which particularly affected theZhetysu in those years. Under the reign ofGaldan Boshugtu Khan, large-scale military operations by the Dzungars were resumed. A mass movement of Kazakhs to the west caused a great concern among the Zhaiyks and the Volga Kalmyks. The new wave of Kazakhs who came to Zhayik was so large that the very fate of the Kalmyk Khanate was in question. This is evidenced by the request of the Kalmyk rulers to the Russian Tsarist government for military assistance to protect their summer nomads along the left bank of theVolga River. Because of it, in the middle of the 18th century, theZhaiyk (Ural) river became the border between Kazakhs and Kalmyks. The tremendous turmoil caused by the Dzungar invasions and a massive loss of basic wealth which was livestock led to an economic crisis that intensified political disputes among the ruling Kazakh elite.^{[33][34][35][36]}

In February–March 1723, Dzungar commanders suddenlyattacked the Kazakh nomadic camps of theSenior andMiddle Jüzes, concentrating their main forces along a wide front from the upper reaches of theIrtysh river to theChu andTalas rivers. The attack occurred during a difficult season for the Kazakhs the time of livestock lambing and the transition to spring pastures. The uluses were in their wintering areas and scattered, and therefore were unable to organize resistance. The Kazakhs of the Senior and part of the Middle Jüz crossed theSyr Darya river above the mouth of the Chirchik and retreated towardSamarkand andBukhara. The Junior Jüz crossed the Syr Darya in its middle reaches and fled toKhiva, as well as north and northwest toward the borders of theRussian Empire — to the territories of theYaik Cossacks,Bashkirs, and Kalmyks. The politically fragmented Kazakhs were caught completely unprepared. Their resistance collapsed. The Dzungar army swept across the steppe,capturing and sacking the Southern Kazakhstan andJetisu, defeating the Kazakh militia which lost the city ofTashkent andSairam. The new Uzbek territories now includedKhujand,Samarkand, andAndijan which were reliant on Dzungar protection. Furthermore, theycaptured theFergana Valley as well.^[37] a detachment of Oiratsattacked deep into territory previously controlled by the Kazakhs, including the cities ofTurkistan.^[38]

In mid-July 1723, Ayuka sent his envoy Kuzytush to Abulkhair Khan to negotiate peace. On the Temir River, the Kalmyk delegation encountered a 15,000-strong Kazakh army led by Abulkhair himself. However, the Kazakh khan declared:

"He is going to wage war against the Kalmyks and the Russians, and forty thousand hordes will be with him."

After this, three Kalmyk envoys were executed, and the remaining seven were taken prisoner. Abulkhair thencontinued his advance toward the Trans-Volga steppes, seeking to drive the Kalmyks andRussians from both banks of the Yaik River and to expand the Kazakh nomadic territories to the northwest. The rapid advance of the Kazakh army forced the Kalmyk taishis Dorzhi Nazarov, Khoshot-Dondok, and Lekbey to hastily retreat from the left bank of the Yaik toKrasny Yar.

OnAugust 5, Yaik colonel Zakharov reported to theAstrakhan administration that a 5,000-strong detachment of Kazakhs and Karakalpaks had crossed the Yaik and moved westward, intending to attack Russian settlements, as well as Kalmyk and Cheremis (Mari) encampments. Following this, Ayuka Khan requested military assistance from Astrakhan governorA.P. Volynsky, who ordered an artillery unit and six squadrons of Russian soldiers to be sent to aid the Kalmyks.^[39]

By late August, however, Abulkhair's forces defeated the uluses of Taisha Lekbey, numbering about 2,000 families. As a result of the fighting, the Kazakhs captured a large number of prisoners and livestock, which were sold to Dorzhi Nazarov, after which the Kazakhscontinued their advance deep into Kalmyk territory.^[40] In the autumn, the Kazakhs captured 5,000 Kalmyk kibitkas in the uluses of Ayuka and Lubzhi.^[41]

Alarmed by the Kazakh attacks on the Kalmyk Khanate, the Russian imperial government inDecember 1723 sent a decree to Ayuka demanding assistance in repelling the Kazakh–Karakalpak offensive:

"The Kirghiz-Kaisaks (Kazakhs; Russians used to call Kazakhs as kirghiz, kirghiz-kaisaks) and the Karakalpaks, having gathered in forty thousand men, are marching against our imperial cities and your uluses, our subject, for the purpose of ravaging towns and villages… You, our subject, must hinder them, so that they may not reach the destruction of our cities and districts.^[42][43]"

Following this, the combined forces of Ayuka and Dosangmanaged to halt the further advance of Abulkhair's detachments, although hostilities did not cease entirely.

In early 1724, major fighting along the Kazakh–Kalmyk border subsided, except for a Karakalpak raid on Kalmyk encampments near theGuryev town inJanuary.^[44] In the spring of the same year, Abulkhair resumed his offensive.

In early March, a Kazakh–Karakalpak force numbering 13,000 meninvaded the Left bank of theVolga and, 60 km fromSaratov, attacked the uluses of Dorzhi Nazarov. 50 Kalmyks were taken prisoner, and 8,500 head of livestock were driven off. In nearby Kalmyk encampments, 400 people and 13,600 head of livestock were captured. OnMarch 20, 1724, Astrakhan official S. P. Shakhmatov reportedclashes on the meadow side of the Volga and abattle near the Elton area, where the Kalmyks lost 60 killed and 60 captured, while the Kazakhs suffered 55 killed and captured.

InApril, the Karakalpaks againattacked Kalmyk encampments near Guryev, breaking into the Kalmyk camp but being repelled by Russian artillery.

Seeking to keep the left bank of the Volga under Kalmyk control, Dorzhi Nazarov decided to give the Kazakhs a pitched battle. By August, he had gathered an 18,000-strong army, while evacuating the peaceful Kalmyk population toward the Volga under the protection of guard detachments and Russian troops.

In early August, Kalmyk scouts crossed the Yaik andattacked a Karakalpak reconnaissance party, then retreated. Soon after, the Oirats were overtaken by the Karakalpaks and engaged in battle, though most of the Kalmyk detachment managed to escape. The reconnaissance estimated the Kazakh army's strength at 10,000 men, and Nazarov's assembled force was sufficient to repel a Kazakh attack. The Kazakh commanders, in turn, postponed a large-scale offensive against the Volga Kalmyk encampments, relying on the element of surprise.

OnAugust 21, a small detachment of the Kazakh batyrEset attacked and defeated the ulus of Lubzhi, then retreated. However, the Kalmyk ruler managed to assemble an army and caught up with the Kazakhs in the Uzeni area. In the ensuing battle, the Kazakh detachment was destroyed, and only eight men survived, including Eset himself.

According to the Russian historian L. A. Bobrov, the Battle of Uzeni reduced the military potential of the Kazakh army and clearly demonstrated that the conquest of Kalmyk lands was a rather difficult task. However, according to the Kazakh historianR.Zh. Temirgaliev, the victory had mainly a propagandistic effect, since the main successes still remained with the Kazakh side.

Despite the defeat in August, Abulkhair Khan managed to significantly weaken the military potential of the Kalmyk Khanate and eliminate the threat of a Kalmyk attack on the Junior Jüz. After that, the Kazakh khan shifted military operations to the Southeastern Front.^[45]

Whilst on the Southeastern Theatre, the Kazakhs, led byAbulkhair Khan, liberated Turkistan with five thousand troops, but in the spring of1725, the Dzungarscaptured the city again.^[46] During the darkest days, large-scale battles were impossible. The Kazakh resistance took the form of Guerrilla Tactics with Small, mobile detachments of Kazakh batyrs harrying Dzungar supply lines, attacked scouting parties, and conducted raids. This constant pressure wore down the occupiers.

After Abulkhair'sdefeat in the struggle for the Syrdarya region in 1725, about 10,000 Kazakh kibitkas once again moved northwest toward the Kalmyk pastures, assuming that the Kalmyks had retreated to the right bank of the Volga. However, upon learning that the Kalmyks had remained in place, they turned back and stopped along the Emba River. In early August 1725, a 20,000-strong Kalmyk army under the command of Galdan-Dandjin advanced eastward, covering the distance between the Yaik and the Emba in 9 days. Upon reaching the first Kazakh encampments, the Kalmyks destroyed a thousand yurts and, from another Kazakh ulus of 10,000 yurts, drove off livestock and horse herds becoming the "Ulus devastation".^[47] While returning to the Yaik, Dorzhi Nazarov learned that his army was being pursued by several thousand Kazakhs and Karakalpaks. Remaining near the Yaik, Nazarov dispatched a reconnaissance detachment "in the Kazakh direction. The August campaign of Galdan-Dandjin, according to the admissions of the Kalmyk rulers themselves, did not yield significant results. From the Karakalpaks and the Kazakhs we were in great fear, and from our campaign achieved little, except that we further provoked and angered them.^[48]

In September 1725, the Kazakhslaunched a new offensive. According to a Kalmyk who escaped from captivity, 17,000 Kazakhs were moving toward the Kalmyks, ostensibly to conclude a peace agreement and then to destroy theYaik town, intending to settle their uluses along the Yaik River.^[49]

On October 6, Saratov authorities reported that 400 Karakalpaks hadattacked Kalmyk uluses near the Ryn Sands, capturing prisoners and livestock.^[50] Later on October 30, a 17,000-strong Kazakh–Karakalpak army appeared in theKarakum region. According to theSamara commandant Kushnikov, they intended to seize the Cossack town and devastate the Kalmyk uluses, then cross the Volga and flee to theKuban.^[51]

In a conversation between the Kalmyk high priest Shakur-Lama and V. P. Beklemishev in February 1726, it was reported that in the autumn of 1725, 10,000 Kazakhs under the leadership of Khans Abulkhair and Samekeattacked the ulus of Lekbey and defeated it.^[52]However, the Kalmyk nobles managed to mobilize a 20,000-strong army anddefeated the Kazakh detachment. Several smaller Kazakh groups were driven to theCaspian Sea and annihilated, while the main force was surrounded near the Yaik.

Thanks to Russian artillery delivered to the Kalmyks in time, they managed to inflict a defeat on the Kazakh detachment, which lost from 1,000 to 2,000 men killed in battle, and to conclude a truce with the Kazakh leaders.^[53] The Kalmyks succeeded in reclaiming all captured property and took 13 (or, according to other accounts, 60) amanats with their attendants.

In 1726, a meeting of representatives from the Kazakh juzes took place inOrdabasy nearTurkestan, which decided to organize another militia. The committee chose Abilhair Khan who was the leader of the Younger juz to be a commander of an army.^[54] After the meeting, the militia of the three Juzes united and were headed by Abulhair and Bogenbai Batyr who in theBattle of Bulanty, defeated the Dzungar troops, which occurred in the foothills ofUlytau, in the Karasyir area. This was the first, over many years, a major victory for Kazakhs over the Dzungars that gained a moral and strategic recognition. The terrain where this battle took place was called "Kalma қırılғan" – "a place where the Kalmaks were exterminated".^[55]

In 1727, Tsewang Rabtan died which caused a rivalry between the contenders and heirs to the throne with most of the competition revolving around the sons of Tsewang Rabtan who were Lausan Shono andGaldan Tseren. Galdan Tseren, after defeating his brother Lausan Shono for the power, had to deal with a two-front war conflict. This internal Dzungar weakness provided the Kazakhs with a critical window of opportunity to consolidate their forces and prepare for a final, decisive confrontation.

In November 1728, Sameke Khan sent a special embassy to the Volga Kalmyks for peace negotiations. The talks led to mutual reconciliation, allovwing the Kazakh khans to shift their main military efforts to the Southeastern Front.

Although the Kazakhs won their first major victory over the troops of the Dzungar Khanate, the task of liberating the Kazakh lands in the south and east of the country remained on the agenda. On November 6, 1728, the khan of the Middle Zhuz, Semeke, sent an embassy to the Volga Kalmyks for peace talks in order to secure his western rear and enable the Kazakhs to concentrate all their forces against the troops of the Dzungar Khanate .^[56]

At the kurultai, which, according to Alexander Shaidatovich, took place after 1728, Khan Abulhair of the Junior Juz was elected commander-in-chief of the united Kazakh militia.^[57] The last major battle between the Kazakh militia and the troops of the Dzungar Khanate took place 120 kilometers from Lake Balkhash in the Angraka area.^{[b][58][57][59]} According to estimates byMoiseev, theBattle of Anrakai took place in 1729,^[58] Kadybaev estimates 1729 or spring 1730.^[57]

According to Tynyshpaev, during this offensive, Kazakh horsemen repeatedly struck enemy forces. Large combat units were commanded by sultans Abilmambet, Barak,Abylai, Bulkhaiir, and other Chingizids. Along with them, representatives of the "Kara Suyek" such as the batyrs Bogenbay and Eset from the generation of Zhetiru of the Younger Zhuz, Bogenbay from the Kanzhigaly clan and his namesake from the Shakshak clan of the Argyn tribe of the Middle Zhuz, as well as the batyrs Kabanbay, Zhanibek, Otegen, Tailak, Sauryk, Malaysary, and many others.^[60]

The Kazakh victory in 1730 did not bring a definitive end to hostilities, but rather initiated a period of continued raids, diplomatic maneuvering, and shifting alliances that lasted into the mid-1730s.

In 1729, the Dzungar leaderGaldan Tseren, seeking to regain the initiative, probed the possibility of a joint military campaign with theRussian Empire against the Kazakhs. He asked the Russian envoy M. Etigerov, "Are they not attacking the Cossacks [Kazakhs] on your side?" However, the Siberian administration categorically rejected this proposed alliance.^[61]

The conflict continued through raids and counter-raids. In the winter of 1731, Kazakh troops attacked a Dzungar trade caravan, capturing a Russian convoy in the process. The Kazakh batyrs subsequently released the Russians but took theUyghur merchants prisoner, demonstrating the complex interplay of relations in the region.^[62]

The Kazakhs dealt significant blows to the Dzungars throughout this period. In the summer of 1730, they captured about a thousandDerbet yurts with their livestock. In the fall of 1731, a deep Kazakh raid into Dzungaria resulted in the capture of "many people, women and children, yurts with a thousand or more head of cattle and belongings."^[63]

In response to planned Kazakh offensives, a 7,000-strong Dzungar army attacked the Kazakh uluses of theMiddle Jüz in the summer of 1732 but was successfully repelled.^[64]

The Russian presence became an increasingly important factor in the post-war politics. When the Russian ambassadorA. I. Tevkelev arrived in the Kazakh steppe in 1732, tensions among Kazakh feudal lords over the issue of allegiance to Russia provided Galdan Tseren with another opportunity to propose a military alliance to the Russians against the Kazakhs.^[65]

In May 1733, the Oirat prince Tsagan arrived inSemipalatinsk with a formal request for Russian troops to jointly "destroy the Cossack horde." The Russian commanders refused, stating they could not provide military assistance without higher orders, especially in the absence of open conflict with the Kazakhs.^[66]

The Dzungar campaign against the Middle Jüz in 1732 ended in failure, with the Dzungar troops returning "with great losses, so that almost all of them remained there." The invasion was significant enough to prevent the traditional meeting of the Middle Jüz nobility from taking place that year.^[67]

During the reign of Tsewang Rabtan in Dzungaria in 1710-1719, and 1723–1732, several major invasions were launched into Central Asia and modern-day Kazakhstan. Despite initial successes, Tsewang Rabtan was unable to subjugate any of the Kazakh tribes. In 1727–1730, the Kazakhsdefeated the Oirat armies of Galdan Tseren. However, internal political strife prevented the Kazakhs from using these victories to regain their lost nomadic lands in Semirechye and modern-day Eastern Kazakhstan.^[68]

Despite the victory atAńyraqaı by the Kazakhs in 1730, fear of another possible invasion by the Dzungar Khanate was still present due to its past aggression towards the Kazakh Khanate. Even the Kazakh khans themselves, including Abilqaiyr, did not give up their full desire to free Kazakh lands captured by the Dzungars, who imprisoned their fellow tribesmen as well. Tense relations by the Kazakh khans remained with Bukhara and Khiva, but by 1730s the Kazakhs managed to soften some of the disputes with the Central Asian khans; however, the relationship with the Volga Kalmyks and Bashkirs remained difficult. Obtaining peace on the western borders of the Younger Juz, and securing its rear was one of the main tasks of Abulkhair Khan. It was highly necessary for the Kazakhs to ease tensions with its neighbors in order to focus more on the Dzungars.^[69]As a direct result of the trauma of the "Great Disaster," Khan Abulkhair of the Junior jüz, along with many sultans and batyrs, officially swore an oath of allegiance to the Russian EmpressAnna Ioannovna. The goal was clear -- to secure a powerful protector against the Dzungars. This move was highly controversial. A significant faction, led by the Baraq batyr and others, opposed Russian influence. This created a lasting internal split within the Junior jüz between a pro-Russian faction and a pro-independence faction.^[70]

At the end of the 1730s, after concluding a truce with the Qing Dynasty, the ruling class of the Dzungar Khanate began active military-political preparations for another invasion of Kazakhstan and Central Asia. In the spring of 1735,Bogenbay Batyr informed the tsarist authorities that the Kazakhs who had escaped from Dzungar captivity warned that Galdan Tseren was planning to send an army to attack the Kaisaks of the Middle Juz.

Under pressure from continuing Dzungar raids, Khan Semeke of the Middle Jüz also accepted Russian citizenship in 1732. However, Kazakh khans like Ablai of the Middle Jüz would famously pursue a "double oath" policy, swearing allegiance to both Russia and Qing China to maintain maximum autonomy.^[71]

In 1739, The invasion of Kazakhstan began in the autumn of 1739 with the total strength of around 30,000 troops^[72]. However, the khans and sultans of the Middle Juz only started to gather troops and prepare to repel the enemy at the very last moment, when the invasion of the Dzungars had already begun. The political situation of the Middle Juz and the rest of Kazakh Khanate remained difficult.^[73] Local conflicts still occurred in the Younger jüz where some of the feudal lords, who were led by Sultan Batyr, clashed with Khan Abulkhair. In 1737, after Sameke Khan of the Middle jüz died, he was replaced by Abilmambet. Despite him being elected to be a khan, Abilmambet was hesitant and did not enforce strong authority in the Kazakh steppe.^[74]

Thus, the Kazakh feudal lords still engaged in internal disputes and did not take any precautions to organize proper defenses on their borders. In the winter of 1739–1740. The Dzungar army struck in all directions, in the North, theyattacked from the Irtysh River, causing a considerable damage to the nomads of the Middle Juz. The Dzungar army alsoadvanced rapidly from the east, bypassing Russian forts and pushing deep into the territories of the Great Jüz (Uly Jüz) in Semirechye and southern Kazakhstan. The forces of the Great Jüz, isolated and unable to unite effectively with the other Jüzes in time, were overwhelmed. The Dzungars inflicted a severe defeat, capturing vast herds and taking many prisoners. Having crippled the Great Jüz, Galdan Tseren's forces turned their attention northward, threatening the heartlands of the Middle Jüz (Orta Jüz).^[75]

At the end of February 1741, the 30,000 strong Dzungar army, under the command of Septen and his elder son, Galdan Tsereng Lama-Dorji, againinvaded Kazakhstan and reachedTobol and theIshim river with skirmishes. Thecampaign lasted until the summer of 1741.^[76] During these battles against Dzungars,Abylai Khan, one of the prominent batyrs, was captured along with his companions. Commanding a small scout detachment of only 200 soldiers, Abylai burst directly into the location of the enemy's main forces. Surrounded on all sides by an army of thousands, the Kazakhs were captured. His capture was a significant blow to Kazakh morale and military leadership.^[77] He was held prisoner for several years before a ransom was negotiated.^[78] Shortly after not long fights, a small force of Sultan Barak was defeated as well. Sultan Durgun, Akymshyn batyr, Koptugan were captured and taken to Dzungaria.^[79][80][81]

Despite these successes, the Dzungars failed to achieve their main goal—to defeat the main forces of the Middle Zhuz and destroy its population. The bulk of the Kazakh uluses migrated beyond the Tobol River, after which their enemies sent a guide from among the prisoners to follow them. He deliberately led them through frost and snow, causing many to freeze to death. The enraged Dzungars burned him and, abandoning their further advance, returned. And to indicate the other such Cossack hordes, the captive comrade led them, the Kalmyks of the Cossack horde, and he deliberately led them astray and caused great snow and frost, because he was a heretic, and because of that, the Kalmyks barely escaped, and several died from the cold, and so they, the Kalmyks burned that heretic thief and went back to attack the Cossack dwellings, which were apparently very crowded, but because of the above-mentioned loss of their people from the frost, they did not dare to attack them and so they returned.".^[82] About 15,000 soldiers returned with Septem, while the other detachments continued to operate separately, “behind rocks and close to Kirghiz (Kazakh) dwellings.”.^[83]

Attempts by the Dzungar command to strike from the south also ended in failure. According to a Yenisei Kyrgyz who escaped from captivity, “the Cossack horde fought against the Kalmyk forces last winter... and the Cossack horde defeated the Kalmyk forces and killed many of them on the right wing.” The batyr Olzhabay distinguished himself in these battles, and folk legends and songs refer to him as the victor over Galdan Tseren.^[84][85] Kazakh troops also made several incursions into the territory of the Dzungar Khanate, defeating the right wing of the Dzungar army and crushing the ulus of Septenya.^[82]

In the summer of 1741, a council took place at the headquarters of the Middle Juz Khan, discussing either to continue the war or to start peace negotiations with the Dzungars. The majority spoke for peace, so a Kazakh ambassador was sent to Dzungaria which negotiated terms of an armistice and the release of prisoners, including Abylai Khan. The negotiations ended successfully and Abylai was released. Ablai's release was not an act of Dzungar benevolence. It was the result of a negotiated ransom. Historical accounts and oral traditions suggest the ransom was substantial, further draining the resources of the Middle Jüz. His release was prioritized because of his recognized status as an indispensable leader.^[86][87] This event contributed the start of feudal conflicts in the Dzungar Khanate where clashes took place for the throne of the DzungarianKhong Tayiji.^[88]

In the summer of 1741, councils of nobles were held in the Middle jüz to discuss the further course of action: whether to continue the war with the Dzungars or to begin peace negotiations. Most of the influential lords were in favor of making peace. On November 11 of that year, Oirat merchants traveling to Russia brought a Kazakh named Urazai, whom they had captured on the way, to the Yamyshevskaya Fortress. In the Chancellery, he stated that “the ambassadors of the Cossack Horde went to Galdan Tseren three months ago to ask him to make peace with the Cossacks”.^[82][89]

In response to the proposal for a truce, Galdan Tseren presented the rulers of the Middle jüz with a number of conditions. He demanded that they send ten noblemen as hostages, “with their houses and livestock,” among whom were to be Sultan Barak, the Zhanibek batyr, and the rebel Karasakal. At the same time, he threatened that in case of refusal, “they would ask for an urgent date and place for battle.” During the negotiations, Galdan Tseren sought to achieve recognition of his sovereignty over the Middle jüz and even the Junior jüz, and used various means to exert pressure, including the issue of prisoner exchange, especially the issue of Abylai Khan. For example, when the Kazakh embassy arrived, the Dzungar khong taishi ordered Abylai's hands and feet to be shackled “and he was kept in chains throughout his stay in Akchura” in order to encourage the Kazakh rulers to be conciliatory and rescue Abylai. After the departure of the Kazakh ambassadors, Abylai was again given a separate yurt, and his freedom of movement was limited only by the guards. The Kazakhs and Dzungars had a long-standing tradition of exchanging prisoners after military clashes.^[89][90]

In an attempt to win over the Kazakh nobility, Dzungarian diplomats constantly emphasized in negotiations that the Kazakhs and Western Mongols were nomadic peoples who had much in common in terms of economy and culture, unlike Russia. In one of his messages, Galdan Tseren openly wrote to Abulkhair that when he sought closeness with Russia, he became an “enemy” to him. He also stated:

"We, the Kalmyks (Dzungars) and Kaisaks (Kazakhs), are both hawks, and we will not kneel before that crow (the Russian empress), for they are carters, and we are Uzbeks (nomads)"

This message contained a hint at a shared historical past, the nomads' contempt for agricultural peoples, and an open call for unity against Russia.^[91]

Meanwhile, the economic and political ties between the Kazakh tribes and Russia continued to strengthen, and among various segments of the population, awareness of the need for unity to resist the Dzungar Khanate grew stronger with each passing year.^[92]

In 1744, relations between the Middle and Junior jüz improved, trade began, fairly frequent political contacts were established, and the issue of prisoner exchange was resolved peacefully. Abylai and Galdan Tseren also maintained close ties.^[93]

During the entire period of theKazakh–Dzungar wars, the Dzungars fought on two fronts. In the west, they waged an aggressive occupational war against the Kazakhs, and in the east as wellwith the Qing Dynasty. The Kazakhs also fought on several fronts in which from the east with Dzungaria, the west where they were disturbed by Yaik Cossacks, Kalmyks and Bashkirs supported by Russia who constantly raided the border, and from the south against the states of Kokand, Bukhara, and Khiva.^[94]

After the death of the Galdan Tseren in 1745 which caused an internal strife and civil war, by the struggle of candidates for the main throne and the disputes by the ruling elite of Dzungaria, one of whose representatives,Amursana, called for Chinese troops. As a result, the Dzungar Khanate fell. Its territory was surrounded by two Manchurian armies, numbering more than half a million people along with auxiliary troops from conquered people. Abylai chose not to take sides. He sheltered Amursana andDawachi before from attacks by the Dzungar khong taishiLama Dorji. However, once Amursana and Dawachi were no longer allies, Abylai Khan took the opportunity to capture herds and territory from the Dzungars. More than 70%–80% of the population of Dzungaria who were mostly women, old people, and children killed by theQing army. About ten thousand families of Dzungars,Dorbets, andKhoids, led by the Noyan and Tsereng, fought hard and went to the Volga of the Kalmyk principality. Some Dzungars made their way toAfghanistan,Badakhshan, andBukhara who accepted military services by local rulers with their descendants eventually converting to Islam.^[95]

In 1771, the Kalmyks under the leadership ofUbashi-noyon embarked on a journey back to the territory of Dzungaria, hoping to revive their national state. This historic event is known as Torgutsky Escape or "Dusty Trek".^[96][97][98]

• Nomad, a 2005 Kazakh historicalepic film that fictionalizes accountAbylai Khan's youth.
• Myn Bala, a 2011 Kazakh historical drama film set in 1729 during a war between the Kazakhs and the Dzungar Khanate.

• Dzungar Khanate
• Kazakh Khanate
• Kalmyk Khanate
• Dzungar–Qing Wars
• First Kazakh-Qing War
• Battle of Shiderty
• Xinjiang under Qing rule
• Qing dynasty in Inner Asia

• Erofeeva, I. V. (2007).Khan Abulkhair: Commander, Ruler, Politician. Almaty: Daik-Press. p. 456.ISBN 9965-798-64-8.

• Kadyrbayev, A. Sh. (2023)."On the History of Relations between the Volga Kalmyks and the Oirats of Dzungaria with the Nogais, Turkmens, and Kazakhs in the 17th–18th Centuries".Bulletin of Kalmyk University (3 (59)):6–16.

• Kushkumbayev, A. K. (2001).The Military Affairs of the Kazakhs in the 17th–18th Centuries. Almaty: Daik-Press. p. 182.ISBN 9965-441-44-8.

• Moiseev, V. A. (1991). K. A. Pishchulina (ed.).The Dzungar Khanate and the Kazakhs (17th–18th Centuries). Alma-Ata: Gylym; Institute of Uighur Studies, Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR. p. 238.

• Suleimenov, R. B.; Moiseev, V. A. (1988).From the History of Kazakhstan in the 18th Century (on the External and Internal Policy of Ablai) (in Russian). Alma-Ata: Nauka; Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnography named after Ch. Ch. Valikhanov, Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR. p. 144.Archived from the original on 2024-12-08.

• Wars involving Mongolia
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• Kazakh Khanate
• History of Xinjiang
• Wars involving the Dzungar Khanate
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