The Kassites gained control of Babylonia after theHittite sack ofBabylon in 1531 BC, and established a dynasty generally assumed to have been based first in that city, after a hiatus. Later rule shifted to the new city ofDur-Kurigalzu.[1] By the time of Babylon's fall, the Kassites had already been part of the region for a century and a half, acting sometimes with Babylon's interests and sometimes against.[2] There are records of Kassite and Babylonian interactions, in the context of military employment, during the reigns of Babylonian kingsSamsu-iluna (1686 to 1648 BC),Abī-ešuh, andAmmī-ditāna.[3]
The origin and classification of theKassite language, like theSumerian language andHurrian language, is uncertain, and, also like the two latter languages, has generated a wide array of speculation over the years, even to the point of linking it toSanskrit. However, like these other languages, it is regarded as alanguage isolate and is not accepted to beSemitic orIndo-European.[4] The Kassite religion is also poorly understood, though the names of someKassite deities are known.[5] The chief gods, titular gods of the kings, wereShuqamuna and Shumaliya, which are distinct from Sumerian, Semitic and Indo-European gods.[6] As was typical in the region, there was some cross-pollination with other religions. After Babylon came within the Kassite sphere of control its city-god,Marduk, was absorbed into the Kassite pantheon.[7]
Documentation of the Kassite period depends heavily on the scattered and disarticulated tablets from Nippur, where thousands of tablets and fragments have been excavated. They include administrative and legal texts, letters, seal inscriptions, private votive inscriptions, and even a literary text (usually identified as a fragment of a historical epic). Many of those tablets have not yet been published, including hundreds held in the Ottoman Museum in Istanbul.[8][9]
About 100 Kassite tablets were found at Dur-Kurigalzu.[10][11] A few inscribed building materials of Kurigalzu I were found at Kish.[12] Several tablets dated to the reign of Agum III were found at theDilmun site ofQal'at al-Bahrain.[13] In total, about 12,000 Kassite period documents have been recovered, of which only around 10% have been published. There are also a number of building inscriptions, all but one written in Sumerian unlike the Akkadian typically used by the Kassites.[14] A number of seals have also been found.[15][16]Kudurrus, stone stele used to record land grants and related documents, provide another source for Kassite history.[17] This practice continued for several centuries after the end of the Kassite Dynasty.[18] Often situated on the surface, many were found early and made their way to museums around the world.[19]
Cylinder seal of Kassite kingKurigalzu II (c. 1332–1308 BC). Louvre Museum AOD 105
The ancient city ofNippur was a major focus for the Kassites. Early on, refurbishments were conducted of the various religious and administrative buildings, the first of these datable to Kurigalzu I. Major construction occurred under Kadashman-Enlil, Kudur-Enlil, and Shagarakti-Shuriash, with lesser levels of repair work under Adad-shuma-usur and Meli-Shipak.[20] Other important centers during the Kassite period wereLarsa,Sippar andSusa. The Kassites were very active atUr.[21] At the site ofIsin, which had been abandoned after the time of Samsu-iluna, major rebuilding work occurred on the religious district including the temple ofGula. The work at Isin was initiated by Kurigalzu I and continued by Kadashman-Enlil I, and after a lapse, by Adad-shuma-usur and Meli-Shipak II.[22] After the Kassite dynasty was overthrown in 1155 BC, the system of provincial administration continued and the country remained united under the succeeding rule, the Second Dynasty of Isin.[23]
The origin of the Kassites is uncertain, though a number of theories have been advanced. Several suspected Kassite names are recorded in economic documents from theUr III period (c. 2112–2004 BC) in southernBabylon, but their origin is ambiguous.[24] It has been suggested they originated from theZagros Mountains region.[25] Kassites were first reported inBabylonia in the 18th century BC, especially around the area ofSippar. The 9th year name of kingSamsu-iluna (c. 1749–1712 BC) ofBabylon, the son ofHammurabi mentions them ie. ("Year in which Samsu-iluna the king (defeated) the totality of the strength of the army / the troops of the Kassites").[26]
As the Babylonian empire weakened in the following years the Kassites became a part of the landscape, even at times supplying troops for Babylon. The Babylonians divided those into kingdom resident Kassites (referred to as such) and Kassites from peripheral areas termed Samḫarû and Bimatü. It is known that a contingent of Bimatü were stationed atDūr-Abī-ešuḫ.[27][2][28]The idol of the godMarduk had been carried off from Babylon, possibly by the Hittites, but the Kassite rulers regained possession, returned Marduk to Babylon, and made him the equal of the Kassite Shuqamuna. Babylon under Kassite rulers, who renamed the cityKaranduniash, re-emerged as a political and military power in Mesopotamia.
The fall of theFirst Sealand dynasty in 1460 BC created a power vacuum which the Kassites filled. After the destruction of theMitanni by the Hittites in the early 14th century BC, Assyria rose in power creating a three-way power structure in the region between the Kassites, Hittites, and Assyrians, with Elam exerting influence from the east and Egypt from the south. A number of theAmarna Letters are correspondence between the respective rulers (including 14 between the Pharaoh and the Kassite ruler).[29] An international system came into place between these parties connected by widespread trade, treaties, and intermarriage between the ruling classes (especially between the Kassites and Elamites).[30][31] A typical treaties include theEgyptian–Hittite peace treaty (c.1259 BC) and the treaty between the Kassite ruler Karaindash and the Assyrian ruler Ashur-bel-nisheshu (c. 1410 BC).
At the peak of their power the Kassites, under Kurigalzu I in the mid 14th century BC, conquered Elam and sacked the capital ofSusa.[32] That ruler initiated significant building efforts in Ur and other southern Mesopotamia cities.[33] The most notable of these efforts was the construction of a new city, Dur-Kurigalzu. It contained a number of palaces and also temples to many Babylonia gods including Enlil, Ninlil, and Ninurta.[34][35] The Kassites also extended their power into the Persian Gulf, including atQal'at al-Bahrain.[36] Being in close proximity the Assyrians and Kassites often came into political and military conflict over the next few centuries. For a time in the early reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I, Assyria gained ascendancy, until the Elamites under Kidin-Hutran III intervened. This period is marked by a building hiatus at Babylon, similar to the one after the fall of theFirst Babylonian dynasty.[37][38]
TheElamites of theShutrukid dynasty conquered Babylonia, carrying away theStatue of Marduk, in the 12th century BC, thus ending the Kassite state.[39] According to the Assyrian Synchronistic Chronicle, which is not considered reliable, the last Kassite king,Enlil-nadin-ahi, was taken toSusa and imprisoned there in 1155 BC, where he also died.[40]
The annals of the Assyrian kingSennacherib detail that on his second, eastern, campaign of 702 BC he campaigned against the land of the Kassites, that being along theDiyala River between the Jebel Hamrin and the Darband-i-Khan. The Kassites took refuge in the mountains but were brought down and resettled, in standard Assyrian practice, in Hardispi and Bit Kubatti, which were made part of the Arrapha district.[41][42][43]
Kassite kingMeli-Shipak II on a kudurru land grant presenting his daughter Ḫunnubat-Nanaya to the goddessNanaya (pictured enthroned). The eight-pointed star seen above was Inanna-Ishtar's most common symbol. Here it is shown alongside thesolar disk of her brotherShamash (Sumerian Utu) and thecrescent moon of her fatherSin (Sumerian Nanna) on aboundary stone of Meli-Shipak II, dating to the twelfth century BC.[i 1]
It has been suggested that several Kassite leaders boreIndo-European names, and they might have had anIndo-European elite similar to theMitanni. Over the centuries, however, the Kassites were absorbed into the Babylonian population. Eight among the last kings of the Kassite dynasty haveAkkadian names. It has also been suggested that the first element inKudur-Enlil's name is derived fromElamite but that is disputed.[46][47]
The Kassites produced a substantial amount of pottery.[48] It is found in many Mesopotamia cities includingEridu andTell Khaiber. Archaeologists divide it into three periods, Early Kassite (before c. 1415 BC), Middle Kassite (c. 1415–1225 BC), and Late Kassite (c. 1225–1155 BC).[49] Many small pottery kilns, generally no bigger than 2 meters in diameter with domed tops, were found in the Babylonian city ofDilbat. Goblets and wavy sided bowls are commonly found in Kassite pottery deposits. Other ceramic goods, such as traps for small animals and vessels commonly thought to be fruit stands were found also.[50] Kassite pottery deposits have been found as far away asAl Khor Island in the Persian Gulf area.
Remnants of two Kassite glass beakers were found during the 1964 excavation in a (c. 800 BC)destruction layer ofHasanlu, in northwestIran. The mosaic glass beakers are thought to have been heirlooms, possibly for ritual use the find spot being a temple. The panes of glass used to create these images were very brightly colored, and closer analysis has revealed that they were bright green, blue, white, and red-orange.[51] A Kassite text found atDur-Kurigalzu mentions glass given to artisans for palace decoration and similar glass was found there.[52] Other similar glass dated 1500 BC was found atTell al-Rimah.[53]
Seals were used widely across the Near Eastern kingdoms during the Kassite rule. They were used to mark official items and ownership.[54] The images created by these seals were unique to each seal, but many shared the same subject matter. Bearded men, religious symbols, horned quadrupeds, and fauna are often shown in these images.[55] The seals were generally made of stone, glass, or clay. The images were made by stamping or rolling the seals into wet clay.[56]
Karduniaš (alsoKurduniash,Karduniash orKaraduniše) is aKassite term used for the kingdom centered onBabylonia and founded by theKassite dynasty. It is used in the 1350-1335 BCAmarna letterscorrespondence.[57] The name Karaduniyaš is mainly used in the letters written betweenKadashman-Enlil I orBurna-Buriash, Kassite kings of Babylon, and thePharaoh ofAncient Egypt - (called:Mizri), letters EA 1-EA 11, a subcorpus of letters, (EA for 'elAmarna'). The etymology of the name combines theSemitic prefix "Kar" used to denote a city or land with aKassite element "duniash" which is of uncertain meaning.[58] The term fell out of use after the Kassite period but the term "King of Karduniaš"was added to the Assyrian royal tutelary after the defeat of Kassite rulerKashtiliash IV (c. 1232–1225 BC).[59]
There are two additional letters in the 382–letter Amarnacorpus that reference Karaduniyaš. The first is a damaged, and partial letter, EA 200, (with no author), regarding "Ahlameans", (similar to theSuteans); the title is:"About Ahlameans". The second letter is complete and undamaged, a letter from one of the sons ofLabaya, namelyMutbaal - (Mut-Bahli, orMut-Ba'lu), letter EA 255.
EA 255, Mutbaal letter no. 1 of 2, title:"No destination too far"
Letter 255 byMutbaal, about caravans, seems to imply that his location in western Jordan, (as "Mayor ofPihilu"-(modernPella, Jordan)), was an important trade route to the east to Babylonia, or north toMittani.
Say [t]o the king, [my] lord and my Sun: ThusMut-Bahl[u], your servant, thedirt at your feet, the mire you tread on. I fall at the feet of the king, my lord, 7 times and 7 times. The king, my lord, sent Haaya to me to say, "Acaravan toHanagalbat-(Mitanni), is this (man) to send on, and (all of you) send it on!" Who am I that I would not send on a caravan of the king, my lord, seeing that[La]b'ayu, my father, [used to ser]ve the king, his lord, [and] he [himself] used to send on [all the carav]ans [that] the king [would se]nd to Hanagalbat. Let the king, my lord, send a caravan even toKaraduniyaš. I will personally conduct it under very heavy guard. -EA 255, lines 1-25 (complete)
EA 9, Burna-Buriash letter no. 4 of 6, title:"Ancient loyalties, new request"
(Para I, 1-6) Say- (qabu (qí-bil-ma)) toNibhurrereya, the king ofEgy[pt-(Mizri), mybrother ]: "(message)-Thus"-(um-ma), Thus, the king ofKarad[un]iyaš, yourbrother. For me all goes well. For you, your household, your wives, your sons, yourcountry, your ma[g]nates, yourhorses, yourchariots, may all go very well.
(Para II, 7-18) From the time myancestors and your ancestors made a mutual declaration of friendship, they sen[t] beautifulgreeting-gifts to each other, and refused no request for anything beautiful. My brother has now sent me 2–minas ofgold as my greeting-gift. Now, (i)f gold is plentiful, overflowing, send me as much as your ancestors (sent), but if it is scarce, send me half of what your ancestors (sent). Why have you sent me 2–minas of gold? At the moment my work on atemple is extensive, and I am quite busy with carrying it out. Send me much gold. And you for your part, whatever you want from my country, write me so that it may be taken to you.
(Para III, 19-38) In the time ofKurigalzu, my ancestor, all theCanaanites wrote here to him, saying, "C[om]e to the border of the country so we can revolt and be allied [wi]th you!" My ancestor sent them this (reply), saying, "Forget about being allied with me. If you become enemies of the king of Egypt, and are allied with anyone else—will I not then come and plunder you? How can there be an alliance with me?" – For the sake of your ancestor, my ancestor did not listen to them. Now, as for myAssyrianvassals-(i.e.Ashur-uballit I, king), I was not the one who sent them to you. Why on their own authority have they come to your country? If you love me, they will conduct no business whatsoever. Send them off to me empty–handed. I send to you as your greeting-gift 3–minas of genuinelapis lazuli, and 5–teams ofhorses for 5–woodenchariots. -EA 9, lines 1-38 (3 paragraphs) (complete)
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^abvan Koppen, Frans, "The Old to Middle Babylonian Transition: History and Chronology of the Mesopotamian Dark Age", Ägypten Und Levante / Egypt and the Levant, vol. 20, pp. 453–63, 2010
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