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InPoland, it has been an officially recognized ethnic-minority language since 2005.[6] Approximately 87,600 people use mainly Kashubian at home.[7] It is the only remnant of thePomeranian language. It is close to standard Polish with influence fromLow German and the extinctPolabian (West Slavic) andOld Prussian (West Baltic) languages.[8]
The Kashubian language exists in two different forms: vernacular dialects used in rural areas, and literary variants used in education.
Kashubian is assumed to have evolved from the language spoken by some tribes ofPomeranians calledKashubians, in the region ofPomerania, on the southern coast of theBaltic Sea between theVistula andOder rivers. It first began to evolve separately in the period from the 13th to the 15th century as the Polish-Pomeranian linguistic area began to divide based around important linguistic developments centred in the western (Kashubian) part of the area.[9]
In the 19th centuryFlorian Ceynowa became Kashubian's first known activist. He undertook tremendous efforts to awaken Kashubian self-identity through the establishment of Kashubian language, customs, and traditions.[10] He felt strongly that Poles were born brothers and thatKashubia was a separate nation.[11]
The Young Kashubian movement followed in 1912, led by author and doctorAleksander Majkowski, who wrote for the paper Zrzësz Kaszëbskô as part of the Zrzëszincë group. The group contributed significantly to the development of the Kashubian literary language.
The earliest printed documents in Polish with Kashubian elements date from the end of the 16th century. The modern orthography was first proposed in 1879.
Many scholars and linguists debate whether Kashubian should be recognized as aPolish dialect or separate language. In terms of historical development, it is a separateLechiticWest Slavic language, but, in terms of modern influence, Polish is a prestige language.[12] Kashubian is closely related toSlovincian, and both of them are dialects ofPomeranian. Despite this, somelinguists, in Poland and elsewhere, consider it a divergent dialect ofPolish. Dialectal diversity is so great within Kashubian that a speaker of southern dialects has considerable difficulty in understanding a speaker of northern dialects. The spelling and the grammar of Polish words written in Kashubian, which is most of its vocabulary, are highly unusual, making it difficult for native Polish speakers to comprehend written text in Kashubian.[13]
The number of speakers of Kashubian varies widely from source to source. In the 2021 census, approximately 87,600[15] people in Poland declared that they used Kashubian at home, a decrease from over 108,000[16][9] in the 2011 census. Of these, only 1,700 reported speaking exclusively in Kashubian within their homes, down from 3,800 in 2011. However, experts caution that changes in census methodology and the socio-political climate may have influenced these results.[7] The number of people who can speak at least some Kashubian is higher, around 366,000.[17][18][19] All Kashubian speakers are also fluent in Polish. A number of schools in Poland use Kashubian as a teaching language. It is an official alternative language for local administration purposes inGmina Sierakowice,Gmina Linia,Gmina Parchowo,Gmina Luzino andGmina Żukowo in thePomeranian Voivodeship. Most respondents say that Kashubian is used in informal speech among family members and friends.[20] This is most likely because Polish is the official language and spoken in formal settings.
During theKashubian diaspora of 1855–1900, 115,700 Kashubians emigrated toNorth America, with around 15,000 emigrating toBrazil.[21] Among the Polish community ofRenfrew County, Ontario, Kashubian is widely spoken to this day, despite the use of more formal Polish by parish priests.[22] InWinona, Minnesota, which Ramułt termed the "Kashubian Capital of America",[23] Kashubian was regarded as "poor Polish," as opposed to the "good Polish" of the parish priests and teaching sisters. Consequently, Kashubian failed to survive Polonization and died out shortly after the mid-20th century.[24]
The earliest recorded artifacts of Kashubian date back to the 15th century and include a book of spiritual psalms that were used to introduce Kashubian to the Lutheran church:
1586Duchowne piesnie (Spiritual songs) D. Marcina Luthera y ynßich naboznich męzow. Zniemieckiego w Slawięsky ięzik wilozone Przes Szymana Krofea... w Gdainsku: przes Jacuba Rhode, Tetzner 1896: translated from pastorks.S. Krofeja, Słowińca (?) rodem z Dąbia.
1643Mały Catechism (Little Catechism) D. Marciná Lutherá Niemiecko-Wándalski ábo Slowięski to jestá z Niemieckiego języká w Słowięski wystáwiony na jáwnosc wydan..., w Gdaińsku przes Jerzego Rhetá, Gdansk 1643. Pastor smołdziński ks. Mostnik, rodem ze Slupska.
Perykopy smołdzinskie (Smoldzinski Pericope), published by Friedhelm Hinze, Berlin (East), 1967
Śpiewnik starokaszubski (Old Kashubian songbook), published by Friedhelm Hinze, Berlin (East), 1967
Throughout the communist period in Poland (1948–1989), Kashubian greatly suffered in education and social status. Kashubian was represented as folklore and prevented from being taught in schools. Following the collapse of communism, attitudes on the status of Kashubian have been gradually changing.[28] It has been included in the program of school education inKashubia although not as a language of teaching or as a required subject for every child, but as a foreign language taught 3 hours per week at parents' explicit request. Since 1991, it is estimated that there have been around 17,000 students in over 400 schools who have learned Kashubian.[29] Kashubian has some limited usage on public radio and had on public television. Since 2005, Kashubian has enjoyed legal protection in Poland as an officialregional language. It is the only language in Poland with that status, which was granted by theAct of 6 January 2005 on National and Ethnic Minorities and on the Regional Language of thePolish Parliament.[30] The act provides for its use in official contexts in ten communes in which speakers are at least 20% of the population.[31] The recognition means that heavily populated Kashubian localities have been able to have road signs and other amenities with Polish and Kashubian translations on them.
Friedrich Lorentz wrote in the early 20th century that there were three main Kashubian dialects. These include the
Northern Kashubian dialect
Middle Kashubian dialect
Southern Kashubian dialect
Other researches would argue that each tiny region of theKaszuby has its own dialect, as inDialects and Slang of Poland:[32]
Bylacki dialect
Slowinski dialect
Kabatkow dialect
Zaborski dialect
Tucholski and Krajniacki dialect (although both dialects would be considered a transitional form of the Wielkopolski dialect and are included as official Wielkopolskie dialects)
Friedrich Lorentz argued that northern dialects had contrastive vowel length, but later studies showed that any phonemic length distinctions had disappeared by 1900. Any other vowel length is used for expressive purposes or is the result of syllable stress.[33] All traces of vowel length can now be seen in vowel alterations.[34]
Kashubian features free placement ofstress, and in some cases, mobile stress, and in northern dialects, unstressed syllables can result invowel reduction.[35] An archaic word final stress is preserved in some two-syllable adjectives, adverbs, and regularly in thecomparative degree of adverbs, in some infinitives and present and past tense forms, some nouns ending in-ô, indiminutives. ending in-ik/-yk, nouns formed with-c and-k, and some prepositional phrases with pronouns.[35][36]
Stress mobility can be observed in nouns, where in the singular the stress is initial, but in the plural it's on the final syllable of the stem, i.e.k'òlano butkòl'anami, and in some verb forms, i.e.k'ùpi vskùp'ita. Some dialects have mergedë withe, making the distinction contrastive. Most of this mobility is limited to morphology and stress has largely stabilized in Kashubian.[35]
Northern and central dialects show a much more limited mobility, as northern dialects show stabilization on initial stress, and central shows constant distance between the stressed syllable and the initial syllable of the word.[37]Proclitics such as prepositions, pronouns, and grammatical particles such asnié may take initial stress.[38][36]
Eastern groups place accents on the penultimate syllable.[39]
The difference between southern and northern dialects dates as far back as the 14th–15th century and is the result of changes to theProto-Slavic vowel length system.
Retention of TarT, especially in the North: Kashubianbardówka vs Polishbrodawka[43]
This feature is not regular and is somewhat archaic, even giving rise to archaizing neologisms such as Kashubianbarń (from Kashubianbróń).
Labialization of initialo-: Kashubianòwca vs Polishowca[39]
So-calledKaszëbienié (Kashubization), Proto-Slavic softt/d/s/z initially tot͡ɕ,d͡ʑ,ɕ,ʑ and finally tot͡s,d͡z,s,z: Kashubiancëchò vs Polishcicho, Kashubianchòdzëc vs Polishchodzić, Kashubianswiat vs Polishświat, Kashubianzëma vs Polishzima[39][44][45][46][47]
This process occurred differently in the West, where soft ć/dź went to t/d[39]
Initialra- ->re- andja- ->je-, however modern forms usually retain-a- Kashubianredło vs Polishradło, Kashubianjerzmò vs Polishjarzmo[48]
Regional retention of medial-t- in the word Kashubiansétmë ("seven") vs Polishsiedem (compare Masurian Polishsziétém).[48]
Loss of mobilee through analysis of declined forms: Kashubiandómk (genitive singular Kashubiandómkù) vs Polishdomek (genitive singular Polishdomku, Kashubianmatk (genitive plural of Kashubianmatka) vs Polishmatek (genitive plural of Polishmatka)[49]
Anablaut ofe:'o after a soft consonant but before hard dentals: Kashubianwiezc (first person present singular Kashubianwiozã) vs Polishwieźć (first person present singular Polishwiozę).[46]
This ablaut may occur also through analogy, i.e. Kashubianwiozlë (past virile l form of Kashubianwiezc), vs Polishwieźli.[46]
Proto-Slavicř -> rzr̝: Kashubianmòrze vs Polishmorze (where rz in Polish is pronounced as a fricativeʐ[50])
This feature is chiefly Northern, and often forms with-dz- dominate.[50]
Lengthening (now a qualitative change) vowels of word-final closed syllables ending with an etymologically voiced consonant: Kashubianbóg (genitive singular Kashubianboga vs Polishbóg (genitive singular Polishboga, Kashubianmiała but Kashubianmiôł (past feminine and masculine l-forms of Kashubianmiec) vs Polishmiała/Polishmiał, Kashubianpana (genitive singular of Kashubianpón) vs Polishpana/Polishpan, Kashubiangniewu (genitive singular of Kashubiangniéw) vs Polishgniewu (genitive singular of Polishgniew), Kashubiandëmù (genitive singular of Kashubiandim) vs Polishdymu (genitive singular of Polishdym), Kashubiancëdu (genitive singular of Kashubiancud) vs Polishcudu (genitive singular of Polishcud). CompareOld Polish phonology.[50]
Proto-Slavic*ę -> Early Kashubianį ->i: Kashubianwzyc vs Polishwziąć[52]
This change was also effected by the change causingi:ë ablaut
As a result ofKaszëbienié, shorti ->ë afters, z, c, dz: Kashubiancëchò, chòdzëc, sëwi, zëma vs Polishcicho, chodzić, siwy, zima[52]
Shorty/i after hard consonants ->ë: Kashubianbëc, lëpa, przësc vs Polishbyć, lipa, prząść[53]
Softk/g ->cz/dż or sometimesć/dź: Kashubianczedë vs Polishkiedy, Kashubiannodżi (genitive singular or nominative/accusative plural of Kashubiannoga) vs Polishnogi (genitive singular or nominative/accusative plural of Polishnoga)[54][55]
Bëlaczenié in northern dialects, i.e.ł ->l: Kashubianjaskùlëczka vs Polishjaskółeczka[54]
Hardening ofń ->n is southern Kashubian: Kashubiankónsczi (usually Kashubiankóńsczi) vs Polishkoński[56]
Dissimilation of some consonant cluster such askt ->cht orsrz/zrz ->strz/zdrz: Kashubianchto vs Polishkto and Kashubianstrzoda, zdrzódło vs Polishśroda, źródło.[57]
Reduction of some consonant clusters, especially in frequent words: Kashubianpierszi, baro vs Polishpierwszy, bardzo[58]
Prothesis, particularly the insertion ofj- before word initiali-: Kashubianjistniec vs Polishistnieć[59]
Regional insertion ofh- before word initiala-: Kashubian(h)arfa vs Polisharfa[60]
The fricative trill/r̝/ is now used only by some northern and northeastern speakers; other speakers realize it as flat postalveolar[ʐ].[69]
The labialized velar central approximant/w/ is realized as a velarized denti-alveolar lateral approximant[ɫ̪] by older speakers of southeastern dialects.[70]
Wszëtczi lëdze rodzą sã wòlny ë równy w swòji czëstnoce ë swòjich prawach. Mają òni dostóne rozëm ë sëmienié ë nôlégô jima pòstãpòwac wobec drëdzich w dëchù bracënotë.
Article 1 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights in English:[75]
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
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