| Karaiyar | |
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| Religions | Hinduism,Christianity |
| Languages | Tamil |
| Subdivisions |
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| Related groups | Tamil people,Karava,Pattanavar |
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Karaiyar is aSri Lankan Tamil caste found mainly on the northern and eastern coastal areas ofSri Lanka, and globally among theTamil diaspora.[1]
They are traditionally a seafaring community that is engaged infishing,shipment andseaborne trade.[2][3] They fish customarily in deep seas or on shore, and employgillnet andseine fishing methods.[4] The Karaiyars were the major maritime traders and boat owners who among other things, traded withpearls,chanks,tobacco, and shipped goods overseas to countries such asIndia,Myanmar andIndonesia.[5][6][3] The community known for theirmaritime history, are also reputed as awarrior caste who contributed as army andnavy soldiers ofTamil kings.[7] They were noted as the armygenerals and navycaptains of theAryacakravarti dynasty.[8]
The Karaiyars emerged in the 1980s as strong representatives ofSri Lankan Tamil nationalism.[9] The nuclear leadership of theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam have background in the wealthier enterprising section of the Karaiyars. Vellupillai Prabhakaran was of Melongi Karaiyar origin.[10]
Historically, they have also been referred to asKurukulam, Varunakulam andKaraiyalar. Sharing similar origins and status are theSinhaleseKarava and thePattanavar ofTamil Nadu.[11]
The word "Karaiyar" is derived from theTamil language wordkarai ("coast" or "shore") and attaches thehonorificsuffix-ar ("people").[12][13] The termKareoi mentioned by 2nd century AD writerPtolemy, is identified with the Tamil word "Karaiyar".[14] Other English, Portuguese and Dutch sources mentions them variously asKaraiar, Karayar, Careas,Careaz, andCarias.[15]
Kurukulam,Varunakulam andArasakulam were historically one of the significant clans of the Karaiyars.[16] Kurukulam, meaning "clan of theKuru", may be a reference to their origin fromKurumandalam (meaning "realm of Kuru's") ofSouthern India.[17] They attribute their origin myth from theKuru kingdom, mentioned in Hindu epicMahabharata.[18][19] Some scholars derivedKurukulam from Kuru, theTamil name forJupiter.[20] Varunakulam, meaning "clan ofVaruna", is a reference to their maritime origin.[21]Varuna is the god of sea and rain, mentioned inVedic Literature, but also inSangam literature as the principal deity of theNeithalSangam landscape (i.e.littoral landscape).[22] Arasakulam means "clan of kings".[16]
The Karaiyar, are among the old coastal communities who inhabited theNeithalSangam landscape.[23] Theancient Tamil literature mentions several coastal populations, but does not contain any direct references to the Karaiyars.
Migration of Karaiyars fromSouth India toSri Lanka started from around second century BCE.[7] The earliest reference to them could be the 1st century BCETamil Householders Terrace,Pali inscription inAnuradhapura referring to several Tamil chiefs including one named "Dameda navika Karava", translated as "Tamil Karayar sailor".[24][25] ThePurananuru mentions "Karaiyavar", but not as a coastal population; in the later literature, the word came to be identified with coastal people.
Several inscriptions mention high-ranked military officials under the titleKurukulattaraiyan (meaning "King of Kurukulam"). An inscription in Tirumukkudal,Tamil Nadu mentions a notability named Kurukulattaraiyan who 'wore a golden anklet' as the commander of the army ofVijayabahu I (11th century AD) who ended the Chola rule in Sri Lanka.[16][26] Another Kurukulattaraiyan,ChoranUyyaninraduvan, the minister ofMaravarman Sundara Pandyan (13th century AD) is mentioned as gifting land and making offerings for theNinra Narayana Perumal temple in an epigraphy of the temple.[27] The same minister is also mentioned in an inscription issued byJatavarman Kulasekaran I.[28]
According to an account given in theMukkara Hatana manuscript, a battalion of 7740 Karaiyar soldiers came fromKurumandalam in Southern India, and defeated theMukkuvars (another coastal community) andSonakars (Tamil Muslims).[29] TheYalpana Vaipava Malai states thatParakramabahu VI of Kotte invited Karaiyar battalions to facilitate trade with other countries. The Karaiyars also formed alliances with coastal military castes fromTamil Nadu such as theMaravars.[30] The Maravars who had strong influence in Northern Sri Lanka, established themselves as trading and sea lords and assimilated into the Karaiyar caste.[31] A 13th century inscription ofMaravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I inTharangambadi,Tamil Nadu makes a reference to the Karaiyars along with the mercantile guildPatinenvisayattar making food offerings to the Masilamaninathar temple.[32]
TheVaiya Padal mentions the voyage of a Karaiyar chief known asMeekāman, who traveled with ships loaded with several castes and chiefs, including the Karaiyars who make reference asVarunakulaththar.[8][33] Another Karaiyar chief also known as Meekāman is credited for leading a troop ofChola soldiers and defeating the powerfulMukkuvar chiefsVediarasan andMeera.[24][34] According to one version was this strife caused because of aPandya ruler who sent Meekaman to obtain a Nagagemstone forKannagi (the heroine ofSilappatikaram).[26] A destroyed fort atNeduntheevu, theDelft Island fort is locally known asMeekaman kōttai, and is thought to have been the fort of Meekaman.[35] According toMattakallappu Manmiyam,Kalinga Magha (founder ofAryacakravarti dynasty) gave the principality ofMannar to those of the Kurukulam lineage.[26]
The Karaiyars in alliance with theParavars were in control of the port-based trade and thepearl fishery conducted in theGulf of Mannar under theJaffna Kingdom, which were one of the worlds major pearl fisheries.[5][36]
The Karaiyars were by the Portuguese described as the most "warlike" tribe and their chiefs as most serious adversaries of thecolonial Portuguese.[15] The Karaiyars revolted six times against thePortuguese in the conquest of the Jaffna kingdom, who aligned and also commanded over the troops ofThanjavur Nayak Kingdom, whose king wasRaghunatha Nayak.[37] The first revolt led by a Karaiyar chieftain who was defeated nearNallur byPhillippe de Oliveira and his army.[21]
The second revolt against them was led by the Karaiyar chiefMigapulle Arachchi, afeudal lord ofJaffna Kingdom who also led the third revolt.[38][39] A later revolt was started by the Karaiyars and theThanjavur Nayak troops of over 5000 men, commanded by the Karaiyar chief,Varunakulattan, one described by the Portuguese as being of kingly status.[21][40]
The Portuguese orderedCankili II, king ofJaffna Kingdom, to surrender theThanjavur Nayak soldiers and Varunakulattan (who is described as "Kingof Careas"). However Cankili II did not surrender them as they had come on his request, and were later on defeated by the Portuguese.[36][41] Upon defeat were significant numbers of Karaiyars along with theNairs andKaravas appointed asLascarins under Portuguese rule, and were converted toCatholicism.[42] In theJaffna region, the Karaiyars were a dominant caste and were considered as upper-class in the social hierarchy, where conversion to Christianity of sections of them allowed them to grow closer to the Portuguese in power.[43]
After the expulsion of the Portuguese, was the growingDutch rule revolted in 1658 in theJaffna region by the Christian Karaiyars andMadapallis.[44] ADutch minister of the 17th century,Philippus Baldaeus, described the Karaiyars, Madapallis andVellalars among the influential classes of the Christians.[15] Elite Karaiyars were appointed to the rank ofMudaliyars.[6] The Karaiyar dominance got weakened through the political rise of theVellalars underDutch rule.[45][46][47]
For centuries have the Karaiyars had sea-trade relations withIndia but alsoMyanmar,Thailand,Malaysia andIndonesia, which has been heavily restricted sinceBritish rule.[48]
In the 20th century, the Karaiyar were the second largest group of voters among theSri Lankan Tamils after the Vellalar.[49] The Karaiyars formed around 10% of the population, while the dominant Vellalars constituted about 50% of the population. The Karaiyars dominated the political scene of the Tamils in the late 20th century through the liberation struggle for an independentTamil Eelam state for Tamils as a result of government sponsored riots and acts such as the1958 anti-Tamil pogrom and theStandardisation act.[50] Educated Karaiyar youths fromJaffna Peninsula took tomilitancy as means of protest and formed separatist groups such asTELO,EROS,EPRLF and the world renownedLTTE, also widely known as the Tamil Tigers.[51]
That the core leadership of the LTTE had Karaiyar origin, (e.g. the leader of the LTTE,Velupillai Prabhakaran was a Melongi Karaiyar), enabled them to develop a strongSea Tiger force due to their traditional knowledge on seafaring and the waterways of thePalk Strait.[52] They benefited greatly from their kinship and long trade relation with the seafaring and militant communities of theCoromandel Coast, enabling them to set up training camps in coastal regions ofTamil Nadu and exploit the sea for weapon smuggling.[53] Through their kinship to the Karaiyar landlord class inBatticaloa region, the LTTE also gained recruitment of Eastern Tamils.[2] Although having a significant Karaiyar representation, the LTTE promoted Tamil unity through anti-casteism and recruited without caste and regional distinctions, and thus ensured them to be the representative of the Tamil society as a whole compared to the otherTamil militant groups.[50][54]
The Karaiyars were assigned the western section (present dayGurunagar) and theharbors of theJaffna Kingdom. The Karaiyars formed thegenerals of the Jaffna kings and officered thenavy of theAryacakravarti dynasty.[8][55] They used theMakara as emblem, the mount of their clan deity, the sea godVaruna, which was also seen on their flags.[56]Kannaki Amman is one of the chief deity of the Hindu Karaiyars whereasFrancis Xavier andVirgin mary are one of the chief saints of the Christian Karaiyars.[5]
The Karaiyars inNorthern Sri Lanka are classified into two groups: theMeelongi and theKeelongi.[57][a] The Melongi Karaiyars are some areas known asThevar Karaiyar andKurukula Karaiyar, who were descendants of commanders, while Keelongi Karaiyars were descendants of the army's soldiers and workers.[58] The Karaiyars inEastern Sri Lanka like other castes are divided intokudi's or matrilineal clans.[59] The Eastern Karaiyars almost exclusively also use the termVaiyittu Var (Tamil for "womb-tie") as a synonymous term forkudi or clan.[4]
The chieftains and village headmen of the Karaiyars held the titlePattankattiyar, meaning "One who is crowned" in Tamil.[60][61] Other titles they used wereAdappanar,Mudaliar,Pillai,Kurukulattan andVarunakulattan.[62][63][64] The Adappans along with the Pattankattiyar were headmen who were responsible of theharbors andpearl fishery of the northern and western parts ofSri Lanka.[65][66] At the hand of the powerful maritime trading clans of the Karaiyars, the emergence ofurban centers known aspattanam were seen.Pattanavar (literally meaning "pattanam-residents"), is an almost extinct caste name also used by the Karaiyars.Mudaliar (meaning "capitalist") were conferred on the maritime elite trading clans of the Karaiyars astitles of nobility.[5][64]
Thedomestic servants of the Karaiyars, who are known asKudimakkal include the castes ofAmbattar,Vannar,Maraiyar andNattuvar.[67] They gave importance in their ritual roles as officiators under the wedding and funeral.[68]
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