Kandake,kadake orkentake (Meroitic:𐦲𐦷𐦲𐦡,romanized: kdke),[1] oftenLatinised asCandace (Ancient Greek:Κανδάκη,romanized: Kandákē),[1] was oneMeroitic term for aqueen orqueen mother ofKingdom of Kush. It is attested for six or seven women, some were rulers others most likely just wives of a king.[2] In some cases, she may have been sister or close female relative of theking of Kush, she also could be thequeen mother.[3] She sometimes had her own court, possibly acted as a landholder[4] and held a secular role as regent until her son come of age.[5] A kandake who ruled in her own right bore in addition the titleqore, the same title carried by male rulers. Contemporary Greek and Roman sources treated it, incorrectly, as a name. The nameCandace is derived from the way the word is used in theNew Testament (Acts 8:27).[6][7][8]
The Kandakes ofMeroë were first described through the Greek geographer'sStrabo account of the "one-eyed Candace" in 23 BCE in his encyclopediaGeographica. There are at least ten regnant Meroitic queens during the 500 years between 260 BCE and 320 CE, and at least six during the 140 periods between 60 BC and 80 AD.[9] The iconography of the Meroitic queens often depicts them alone and at the forefront of their stelae and sculptures, wearing regal clothing. Early depictions of Kushite queens typically do not have Egyptian elements, making their appearance drastically different from their Kushite male and Egyptian counterparts. As seen in the Dream Stela ofTanawetamani, a large shawl was wrapped around the body with an additionally decorated cloak worn over the first; typically, a small tab-like element hanging below the hem touches the ground and has been interpreted as a little tail.[10] The first association with this element of dress is withTarharqo's mother during his coronation ceremony.
It was not untilGeorge Reisner excavated the royal cemeteries atEl Kurru andNuri in 1917-19 that archaeological material became available for studying Kushite queenship. Additionally, a few royal tombs of Kushite women have been found at Meroe's cemetery and in Egypt atAbydos (Leahy 1994). At El Kurru, six pyramids belong to royal women of the25th Dynasty and a pyramid for queenQalhata of theNapatan period.[11] At Nuri, the tombs of royal women are located on the west plateau, with more inscriptional information available at the site, linking the roles that the kings' mothers played in succession and their importance during the Kushite dynasty.[12]
The most important event that Kushite women participated in was kingship's ensured continuity, where royal women were mentioned and represented in the royal ceremony.[12] Thelunettes of the stelae ofTanawetamani,Harsiyotef, andNastasen all provide iconographic and textual evidence of these kings' enthronement.[10][13][14] In all of thesestelae, the king is accompanied by a female member of his family, mother, and wife. The king's mother played an essential role in the legitimacy of her son as the king; textual evidence from Taharqo's coronation stelae represents inscriptional evidence suggesting that the king's mother traveled to her son's coronation. During the Kushite 25th Dynasty, the office that was known asGod's Wife of Amun was established. The royal women in this role acted as the primary contact with the Kushite god Amun. They played a decisive role in the king's accession to the throne.
Bas-reliefs dated to about 170 B.C. reveal the kentakeShanakdakheto, dressed in armor and wielding a spear in battle. She did not rule as queen regent or queen mother, but as a fully independent ruler. Her husband was her consort. In bas-reliefs found in the ruins of building projects she commissioned, Shanakdakheto is portrayed both alone as well as with her husband and son, who would inherit the throne upon her death.[citation needed]
Pliny writes that the "Queen of the "Aethiopians" bore the titleCandace, and indicates thatKush had conquered ancientSyria and theMediterranean.[15]
In 25 BC the Kush kandakeAmanirenas, as reported byStrabo, attacked the city of Syene, today'sAswan, in territory of theRoman Empire; EmperorAugustus destroyed the city ofNapata in retaliation.[16][17]
Cassius Dio wrote that Kandake's army advanced as far as theElephantine in Egypt, but Petronius defeated them and took Napata, their capital, and other cities.[18]
Four African queens were known to the Greco-Roman world as the "Candaces":Amanishakheto,Amanirenas,Nawidemak, andMalegereabar.[19]
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In the New Testament,a treasury official of "Candace, queen of theAethiopians", returning from a trip toJerusalem, met withPhilip the Evangelist:
Now anangel of the Lord said toPhilip, "Rise and go toward the south to the road that goes down from Jerusalem to Gaza." This is a desert place. And he rose and went. And there was anAethiopianeunuch, a court official of Candace, queen of the Aethiopians, who was in charge of all her treasure. He had come to Jerusalem to worship[20]
He discussed with Philip the meaning of a perplexing passage from theBook of Isaiah.[21] Philip explained the scripture to him and he was promptlybaptised in some nearby water. The eunuch 'went on his way, rejoicing',[22] and presumably therefore reported back on his conversion to the Kandake.
The Ethiopian royal legend and chronicles contain references to queens said to carry titleKandake. Though these references do not originate in contemporary inscriptions or Ethiopian royal titles but appear in later literary traditions, particularlyKebra Nagast (14th century CE) and post-conquest Solomonic texts.[23] There is no archaeological or epigraphic evidence that title “Kandake” was used historically within Ethiopia.
Ethiopia’s dynastic tradition claims a lineage stretching back to before 1000 BCE, culminating in reign ofEmperor Haile Selassie, who was deposed in 1974. The official genealogy, as recorded in legendary sources, traces monarchy toMenelik I, said to be son ofKing Solomon andMakeda, the Queen of Sheba.[24] The following queens from the king list have "Kandake" added to their name:[25]
Claims that twenty-one queens ruled Ethiopia as sole regents until 9th century CE are found in Ethiopian oral traditions and chronicled king lists, but are not verified in inscriptions or contemporary records from Aksumite or pre-Aksumite period.[27]
According to historians, conquest ofMeroë byKing Ezana in 4th century CE may have inspired later political fictions, in which Axumite rulers retroactively claimed connections to Kushite traditions. This included adoption of Greek term “Aithiops” (Αἰθίοψ), a classical translation of "Cush" (כּוּשׁ) from Hebrew Bible, originally used byGreco-Roman writers to describe theKingdom of Kush and people ofNubia, whose civilization predated rise ofAxum by nearly two millennia.[28] This cultural absorption helped shape Solomonic legitimacy and Ethiopian court ideology in the medieval period.
A legend in theAlexander romance claims that "Candace ofMeroë" foughtAlexander the Great.[29] In fact, Alexander never attacked Nubia and never attempted to move further south than the oasis ofSiwa inEgypt.[30][31] The story is that when Alexander attempted to conquer her lands in 332 BC, she arranged her armies strategically to meet him and was present on a warelephant when he approached. Having assessed the strength of her armies, Alexander decided to withdraw fromNubia, heading toEgypt instead.[citation needed] Another story, as evident in the literary retelling of the life of Alexander provided by the Middle High German epicStraßburger Alexander from ca. 1150, claims that Alexander and Candace had a romantic encounter.[citation needed][32]
These accounts originate fromAlexander Romance by an unknown writer calledPseudo-Callisthenes, and the work is largely a fictionalized and grandiose account of Alexander's life.[30] It is commonly quoted, but there seems to be no historical reference to this event from Alexander's time. The whole story of Alexander and Candace's encounter appears to be legendary.[31][30]
John Malalas has mixed the Pseudo-Callisthenes material with other and wrote about the affair of Alexander with Kandake, adding that they got married. Malalas also wrote that Kandake was an Indian queen and Alexander met her during hisIndian campaign.[33][34][35]
At least elevenqueens also ruled in their own right as monarchs (i.e.queens regnant) of Kush:
The following list contains all Nubian women that were most likely ruling as a king (qore). Only six or seven of them are attested with the titleKandake[36]
Based on the reading of a single inscription, some lists give two later kandakes namedMaloqorebar (266–283 AD) andLahideamani (306-314 AD).[40] A recently discovered inscription corrects this earlier reading, however, showing that neither was a woman.[41]
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