TheKaaba,[b] sometimes referred to asal-Kaʽba al-Musharrafa,[d] is a stone building at the center ofIslam's most importantmosque andholiest site, theMasjid al-Haram inMecca, Saudi Arabia.[2][3][4] It is considered byMuslims to be theBaytullah (Arabic:بَيْت ٱللَّٰه,lit. 'House of God') and determines theqibla (Arabic:قِبْلَة,lit. 'direction ofprayer') for Muslims around the world. The current structure was built after the original building was damaged by a fire during thesiege of Mecca by theUmayyads in 683CE.[1]
Inearly Islam, Muslims faced in the general direction ofJerusalem as the qibla in their prayers before changing the direction to face the Kaaba, believed by Muslims to be a result of aQuranic verse revelation toMuhammad.[5]
According to Islam, the Kaaba was rebuilt several times throughout history, most famously byIbrahim and his sonIsmail,[6] when he returned to the valley of Mecca several years after leaving his wifeHajar (Hagar) and Ismail there uponAllah's command. Circling theKaaba seven times counterclockwise, known as Tawaf (Arabic:طواف,romanized: tawaaf), is aFard (obligatory) rite for the completion of theHajj andUmrah pilgrimages.[4] The area around the Kaaba where pilgrims walk is called the Mataaf.
The Kaaba and the Mataaf are surrounded by pilgrims every day of theIslamic year, except the 9th ofDhu al-Hijjah, known as theDay of Arafah, on which the cloth covering the structure, known as theKiswah (Arabic:كسوة,romanized: Kiswah,lit. 'Cloth'), is changed. However, the most significant increase in their numbers is duringRamadan and theHajj, when millions of pilgrims gather for Tawaf.[7] According to the SaudiMinistry of Hajj and Umrah, 6,791,100 external pilgrims arrived for the Umrahpilgrimage in the Islamic yearAH 1439 (2017/2018 CE).[8]
The literal meaning of the wordKa'bah (Arabic:كعبة) iscube.[9] In the Qur'an, from the era of the life ofMuhammad, the Kaaba is mentioned by the following names:
HistorianPatricia Crone has cast doubt on the claim that Mecca was a major historical trading outpost.[16][17] Other scholars such asGlen Bowersock disagree and assert that it was.[18][19]
According toIslamic cosmology, theZurah pilgrimage site was the precursor to the Kaaba.[20] Prior to Islam, the Kaaba was a holy site for the variousBedouin tribes throughout theArabian Peninsula. Once every lunar year, Bedouin people would make a pilgrimage to Mecca. Setting aside any tribal feuds, they would worship their gods in the Kaaba and trade with each other in the city.[21] Various sculptures and paintings were held inside the Kaaba. A statue ofHubal (the principal idol of Mecca) and statues of other pagan deities are known to have been placed in or around the Kaaba.[22] Apart from the paintings of pagan idols decorating the walls, which were destroyed at the behest of Muhammad after hisconquest of Mecca,[22] there were also paintings ofangels, ofIbrahim holdingdivination arrows, and ofIsa (Jesus) and his motherMaryam (Mary), which Muhammad spared.[23] Undefined decorations, money and a pair of ram's horns were recorded to be inside the Kaaba.[22] The pair of ram's horns were said to have belonged to the ram sacrificed by Ibrahim in place of his son Ismail as held by Islamic tradition.[22]
During its history, theBlack Stone at the Kaaba has been struck and smashed by a stone fired from acatapult,[24] it has been smeared with excrement,[25] stolen and ransomed by theQarmatians[26] and smashed into several fragments.[26][22]
al-Azraqi provides the following narrative on the authority of his grandfather:[22]
I have heard that there was set up inal-Bayt (referring to the Kaaba) a picture (Arabic:تمثال,romanized: Timthal,lit. 'Depiction') of Maryam and 'Isa. ['Ata'] said: "Yes, there was set in it a picture of Maryam adorned (muzawwaqan); in her lap, her son Isa sat adorned."
In her bookIslam: A Short History,Karen Armstrong asserts that the Kaaba was officially dedicated toHubal, aNabatean deity, and contained 360 idols which probably represented the days of the year.[27] However, by the time of Muhammad's era, it seems that the Kaaba was venerated as the temple of Allah, the High God. Once a year, tribes from all around the Arabian Peninsula would converge on Mecca to perform the Hajj pilgrimage, which was a mark of the widespread conviction that Allah was the same deity worshipped by monotheists. At this time, the Muslims would perform the Salat prayer facing Jerusalem, as instructed by Muhammad, and turning their backs on the pagan associations of the Kabah.[27]Alfred Guillaume, in his translation of theIbn Ishaq'sseerah, says that the Kaaba itself might be referred to in the feminine form.[28]Circumambulation was often performed naked by men and almost naked by women.[29] It is disputed whether Allah and Hubal were the same deity or different. According to a hypothesis byUri Rubin and Christian Robin, Hubal was only venerated byQuraysh and the Kaaba was first dedicated to Allah, a supreme god of individuals belonging to different tribes, while the pantheon of the gods of Quraysh was installed in the Kaaba after they conquered Mecca a century before Muhammad's time.[30]
Miniature fromJami' al-tawarikh (706 AH, 1307 CE) depicting Muhammad and others moving the black stone into the Kaaba
Imoti contends that there were numerous such Kaaba sanctuaries in Arabia at one time, but this was the only one built of stone.[31] The others also allegedly had counterparts of the Black Stone. There was a "Red Stone", in the Kaaba of the South Arabian city of Ghaiman; and the "White Stone" in the Kaaba of al-Abalat (near modern-dayTabala). Grunebaum, inClassical Islam, points out that the experience of divinity of that period was often associated with thefetishism of stones, mountains, special rock formations, or "trees of strange growth."[32] Armstrong further says that the Kaaba was thought to be at the center of the world, with the Gate of Heaven directly above it. The Kaaba marked the location where the sacred world intersected with the profane; the embedded Black Stone was a further symbol of this as ameteorite that had fallen from the sky and linked heaven and earth.[33]
According to Sarwar, about 400 years before the birth of Muhammad, a man named 'Amr bin Luhayy, who descended fromQahtan and was the king ofHijaz, placed an idol of Hubal on the roof of the Kaaba. This idol was one of the chief deities of the rulingQuraysh tribe. The idol was made of redagate and shaped like a human, but with the right hand broken off and replaced with a golden hand. When the idol was moved inside the Kaaba, it had seven arrows in front of it, which were used fordivination.[34] To maintain peace among the perpetually warring tribes, Mecca was declared a sanctuary where no violence was allowed within 30 km (20 mi) of the Kaaba. This combat-free zone allowed Mecca to thrive not only as a place of pilgrimage, but also as a trading center.[35]
InSamaritan literature, the Samaritan Book of the Secrets of Moses (Asatir) states that Ismail and his eldest sonNebaioth built the Kaaba as well as the city of Mecca."[36] TheAsatir book was likely compiled in the 10th century CE,[37] thoughMoses Gaster suggested in 1927 that it was written no later than the second half of the 3rd century BCE.[38]
According to Islamic opinion
The Kaaba and Masjid al-Haram depicted on atalismanic shirt, 16th or early 17th century
The Qur'an contains several verses regarding the origin of the Kaaba. It states that the Kaaba was the firstHouse of Worship for mankind, and that it was built by Ibrahim and Ismail on Allah's instructions:[39][40][41]
Verily, the first House (of worship) appointed for mankind was that at Bakkah (Makkah), full of blessing, and a guidance for mankind.
Behold! We gave the site, to Ibrahim, of the (Sacred) House, (saying): "Associate not anything (in worship) with Me; and sanctify My House for those who compass it round, or stand up, or bow, or prostrate themselves (therein in prayer)."
And remember Ibrahim and Ismail raised the foundations of the House (With this prayer): "Our Lord! Accept (this service) from us: For Thou art the All-Hearing, the All-knowing."
Ibn Kathir, in his famousexegesis (tafsir) of the Quran, mentions two interpretations among the Muslims on the origin of the Kaaba. One is that the temple was a place of worship formala'ikah (angels) before the creation of man. Later, a house of worship was built on the location and was lost during the flood inNuh (Noah)'s time and was finally rebuilt by Ibrahim and Ismail as mentioned later in the Quran. Ibn Kathir regarded this tradition as weak and preferred instead the narration byAli ibn Abi Talib that although several other temples might have preceded the Kaaba, it was the firstBayt Allah ('House of God'), dedicated solely to him, built by his instruction, and sanctified and blessed by him, as stated inQuran22:26-29.[51] Ahadith inSahih al-Bukhari states that the Kaaba was the firstmasjid on Earth, and the second wasAl-Aqsa in Jerusalem.[52]
NarratedAbu Dhar: I said, "O Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)! Which mosque was first built on the surface of the earth?" He said, "Al- Masjid-ul-,Haram (in Mecca)." I said, "Which was built next?" He replied "The mosque of Al-Aqsa ( in Jerusalem) ." I said, "What was the period of construction between the two?" He said, "Forty years." He added, "Wherever (you may be, and) the prayer time becomes due, perform the prayer there, for the best thing is to do so (i.e. to offer the prayers in time).
While Abraham was building the Kaaba, an angel brought to him the Black Stone which he placed in the eastern corner of the structure. Another stone was theMaqam Ibrahim, the Station of Abraham, where Abraham stood for elevation while building the structure. The Black Stone and theMaqam Ibrahim are believed by Muslims to be the only remnant of the original structure made by Abraham as the remaining structure had to be demolished and rebuilt several times over history for its maintenance.[citation needed] After the construction was complete, God enjoined the descendants of Ismail to perform an annual pilgrimage: the Hajj and theQurban, sacrifice of cattle. The vicinity of the temple was also made a sanctuary where bloodshed and war were forbidden.[Quran22:26-33]
According to Islamic tradition, over the millennia after Ismail's death, his progeny and the local tribes who settled around theZamzam well gradually turned to polytheism and idolatry. Several idols were placed within the Kaaba representing deities of different aspects of nature and different tribes. Several rituals were adopted in the pilgrimage including doing naked circumambulation.[29] A king named Tubba' is considered the first one to have a door be built for the Kaaba according to sayings recorded inAl-Azraqi'sAkhbar Makka.[54] The interpretation that pre-Islamic Arabs once practicedAbrahamic religions is supported by some literary evidence, being the prevalence ofIshmael, whose God was that ofAbraham, in pre-Islamic Arab culture.[55][56][57]
Ptolemy and Diodorus Siculus
Writing in theEncyclopedia of Islam, Wensinck identifies Mecca with a place calledMacoraba mentioned byPtolemy.[58][13]G. E. von Grunebaum states: "Mecca is mentioned by Ptolemy. The name he gives it allows us to identify it as a South Arabian foundation created around a sanctuary."[59] InMeccan Trade and the Rise of Islam,Patricia Crone argues that the identification of Macoraba with Mecca is false and that Macoraba was a town in southern Arabia in what was then known asArabia Felix.[60] A recent study has revisited the arguments for Macoraba and found them unsatisfactory.[61]
Based on an earlier report byAgatharchides of Cnidus,Diodorus Siculus mentions a temple along the Red Sea coast, "which is very holy and exceedingly revered by all Arabians".[62]Edward Gibbon believed that this was the Kaaba.[63] However, Ian D. Morris argues that Gibbon had misread the source: Diodorus puts the temple too far north for it to have been Mecca.[64]
Arnobius
Christian church fatherArnobius, in around 300 CE, referred to "an unshapen stone" worshiped in an unspecified location in Arabia.[65]
Khuzistan Chronicle
This shortNestorian (Christian origin) chronicle written no later than the 660s CE covers the history up to the Arab conquest and also gives an interesting note on Arabian geography. The section covering the geography starts with a speculation about the origin of the Muslim sanctuary in Arabia:
Regarding the K'bta (Kaaba) of Ibrahim, we have been unable to discover what it is except that, because the blessed Abraham grew rich in property and wanted to get away from the envy of the Canaanites, he chose to live in the distant and spacious parts of the desert. Since he lived in tents, he built that place for the worship of God and for the offering of sacrifices. It took its present name from what it had been, since the memory of the place was preserved with the generations of their race. Indeed, it was no new thing for the Arabs to worship there, but goes back to antiquity, to their early days, in that they show honor to the father of the head of their people.[66]
This is an early record from theRashidun caliphate, of a Christian origin that explicitly mentions the Kaaba, and confirms the idea that not just the Arabs but certain Christians as well, associated the site with Ibrahim in the seventh century. This is the second dateable text mentioning the Kaaba, first being some verses from theQuran.
Rock inscriptions
Saudi archeologist Mohammed Almaghthawi discovered some rock inscriptions mentioning the Masjid al-Haram and the Kaaba, dating back to the first and second centuries of Islam. One of them reads as follows:
God suffices and wrote Maysara bin Ibrahim Servant of the Kaaba (Khadim al-Kaaba).[67]
During Muhammad's lifetime (570–632 CE), the Kaaba was considered a holy site by the local Arabs. Muhammad took part in the reconstruction of the Kaaba around 600 C.E., after its structure was weakened by a fire, and then damaged by a subsequent flood. Sources includingIbn Ishaq'sSirat Rasūl Allāh, one of the biographies of Muhammad (as reconstructed and translated by Guillaume), as well asAl-Azraqi's chronicle of Mecca, describe Muhammad settling a quarrel between the Meccan clans as to which clan should set the Black Stone in its place. According to Ishaq's biography, Muhammad's solution was to have all the clan elders raise the cornerstone on a cloak, after which Muhammad set the stone into its final place with his own hands.[70][71] Thetimber for the reconstruction of the Kaaba was purchased by Quraysh from a Greek ship that had been wrecked on theRed Sea coast at Shu'aybah. The work was undertaken by a Greek carpenter from the same ship, called Baqum (باقوم Pachomius).[72] Financial constraints during this rebuilding caused Quraysh to exclude six cubits from the northern part of the Kaaba. This portion is what is currently known as Al-Hateem الحطيم or Hijr Ismail حجر اسماعيل.
Muhammad'sIsra' is said to have taken him from the Kaaba to theMasjid al-Aqsa and heavenwards from there.[73]
Muslims initially considered Jerusalem as their qibla, or prayer direction, and faced toward it while offering prayers; however, pilgrimage to the Kaaba was considered a religious duty though its rites were not yet finalized. During the first half of Muhammad's time as a prophet while he was at Mecca, he and his followers were severely persecuted which eventually led to their migration toMedina in 622 CE. In 624 CE, Muslims believe the direction of the qibla was changed from the Masjid al-Aqsa to the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, with the revelation ofSurah Al-Baqara2:144.[74] In 628 CE, Muhammad led a group of Muslims towards Mecca with the intention of performing theUmrah, but was prevented from doing so by the Quraysh. He secured a peace treaty with them, theTreaty of Hudaybiyyah, which allowed the Muslims to freely perform pilgrimage at the Kaaba from the following year.[75]
At the culmination of his mission,[76] in 630 CE, after the allies of the Quraysh, the Banu Bakr, violated the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, Muhammadconquered Mecca. His first action was to remove statues and images from theKaaba.[23] According to reports collected byIbn Ishaq andal-Azraqi, Muhammad spared a painting ofMary andJesus, and a fresco of Ibrahim.[77][23][78]
Narrated Abdullah: When the Prophet entered Mecca on the day of the conquest, there were 360 idols around the Kaaba. The Prophet started striking them with a stick he had in his hand and was saying, "Truth has come and Falsehood has vanished..." (Qur'an 17:81)
Al-Azraqi further conveys how Muhammad, after he entered the Kaaba on the day of the conquest, ordered all the pictures erased except that of Maryam:
Shihab (said) that the Prophet (peace be upon him) entered the Kaaba on the day of the conquest, and in it was a picture of the angels (mala'ika), among others, and he saw a picture of Ibrahim and he said: "May Allah kill those representing him as a venerable old man casting arrows in divination (shaykhan yastaqsim bil-azlam)." Then he saw the picture of Maryam, so he put his hands on it and he said: "Erase what is in it [the Kaaba] in the way of pictures except the picture of Maryam."
After the conquest, Muhammad restated the sanctity and holiness of Mecca, including its Great Mosque (Masjid al-Haram), in Islam.[79] He performed the Hajj in 632 CE called theHujjat ul-Wada' ("Farewell Pilgrimage") since Muhammad prophesied his impending death on this event.[80]
Textile cover of the Kaaba (calledKiswah) with Islamic inscriptions calligraphed in Arabic with golden threadsThe Kaaba during an expansion phase in 2013
The Kaaba has been repaired and reconstructed many times. The structure was severely damaged by a fire on 3Rabi' I 64 AH (Sunday 31 October 683 CE), during thefirst siege of Mecca in 683 in thewar between theUmayyads and'Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr,[81] an early Muslim who ruled Mecca for many years between the death of ʿAli and the consolidation of power by theUmayyads. 'Abdullah rebuilt it to include thehatīm. He did so on the basis of a tradition (found in severalhadith collections) that thehatīm was a remnant of the foundations of the Abrahamic Kaaba, and that Muhammad himself had wished to rebuild it so as to include it.[82]
The Kaaba was bombarded with stones in thesecond siege of Mecca in 692, in which the Umayyad army was led byal-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf. The fall of the city and the death of 'Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr allowed the Umayyads under'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan to finally reunite all the Islamic possessions and end the long civil war. In 693 CE, 'Abd al-Malik had the remnants of al-Zubayr's Kaaba razed, and rebuilt it on the foundations set by the Quraysh. The Kaaba returned to the cube shape it had taken during Muhammad's time. Its basic shape and structure have not changed since then.[82]
During the Hajj of 930 CE, theShi'iteQarmatiansattacked Mecca underAbu Tahir al-Jannabi, defiled the Zamzam Well with the bodies of pilgrims and stole the Black Stone, taking it to the oasis in Eastern Arabia known asal-Aḥsāʾ, where it remained until theAbbasids ransomed it in 952 CE.[83]
After heavy rains and flooding in 1626, the walls of the Kaaba collapsed and the Mosque was damaged. The same year, during the reign of Ottoman EmperorMurad IV, the Kaaba was rebuilt with granite stones from Mecca, and the Mosque was renovated.[84]
In 1916, afterHussein bin Ali had launched theGreat Arab Revolt, during theBattle of Mecca betweenArab and Ottoman forces, the Ottoman troops bombarded the city and hit the Kaaba, setting fire to the protective veil.[85][86] This incident was later exploited by the propaganda of the Great Arab Revolt to attempt to demonstrate the impiety of the Ottomans and the legitimacy of the revolt as a holy war.[85][86]
The Kaaba is acuboid-shaped structure made ofstones. It is approximately 15 m (49 ft 3 in) high with sides measuring 12 m (39 ft 4 in) × 10.5 m (34 ft 5 in) wide[88] (Hawting states 10 m (32 ft 10 in).[89] Inside the Kaaba, the floor is made ofmarble andlimestone. The interior walls are clad with tiled, white marble halfway to the roof, with darker trimmings along the floor. The floor of the interior stands about 2 m (6 ft 7 in) above the ground area wheretawaf is performed.[88][89]
The wall directly adjacent to the entrance of the Kaaba has six tablets inlaid with inscriptions, and there are several more tablets along the other walls. Along the top corners of the walls runs a black cloth embroidered with gold Qur'anic verses. Caretakers anoint the marble cladding with the same scented oil used to anoint the Black Stone outside. Three pillars (some erroneously report two) stand inside the Kaaba, with a small altar or table set between one and the other two.Lamp-like objects (possible lanterns orcruciblecensers) hang from the ceiling. The ceiling itself is of a darker colour, similar in hue to the lower trimming. TheBāb ut-Tawbah—on the right wall (right of the entrance) opens to an enclosed staircase that leads to a hatch, which itself opens to the roof. Both the roof and ceiling (collectively dual-layered) are made ofstainless steel-cappedteak wood.
A technical drawing of the Kaaba showing dimensions and elementsRukn al-Yamani (The Yemeni Corner)
Each numbered item in the following list corresponds to features noted in the diagram image.
TheḤajar al-Aswad (Arabic:الحجر الأسود,romanized: al-Hajar al-Aswad,lit. 'The Black Stone'), is located on the Kaaba's eastern corner. It is the location where Muslims start their circumambulation of the Kaaba, known as thetawaf.
The entrance is a door set 2.13 m (7 ft 0 in) above the ground on the north-eastern wall of the Kaaba, called theBāb ar-Raḥmah (Arabic:باب الرحمة,romanized: Bāb ar-Raḥmah,lit. 'Door of Mercy'), that also acts as the façade.[4] In 1979, the 300 kg (660 lb) gold doors made by artistAhmad bin Ibrahim Badr, replaced the old silver doors made by his father, Ibrahim Badr, in 1942.[90] There is a wooden staircase on wheels, usually stored in the mosque between the arch-shaped gate ofBanū Shaybah and theZamzam Well. The oldest surviving door dates back to 1045 AH (1635–6 CE).[54]
TheMīzāb ar-Raḥmah, commonly shortened toMīzāb orMeezab is a rain spout made of gold. Added when the Kaaba was rebuilt in 1627, after a flood in 1626 caused three of the four walls to collapse.
This slant structure, covering three sides of the Kaaba, is known as theShadherwaan (Arabic:شاذروان) and was added in 1627 along with theMīzāb ar-Raḥmah to protect the foundation from rainwater.
TheHatīm (also romanized ashateem) and also known as theHijr Ismail, is a low wall that was part of the original Kaaba. It is a semi-circular wall opposite, but not connected to, the north-west wall of the Kaaba. It is 1.31 m (4 ft3+1⁄2 in) in height and 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) in width, and is composed of white marble. The space between thehatīm and the Kaaba was originally part of theKaaba, and is thus not entered during thetawaf.
al-Multazam, the roughly2 m (6+1⁄2 ft) space along the wall between the Black Stone and the entry door. It is sometimes considered pious or desirable for a pilgrim to touch this area of the Kaaba, or performdua here.
The Station of Ibrahim(Maqam Ibrahim) is a glass and metal enclosure with what is said to be an imprint of Ibrahim's feet. Ibrahim is said to have stood on this stone during the construction of the upper parts of the Kaaba, raising Ismail on his shoulders for the uppermost parts.[91]
The corner of the Black Stone. It faces very slightly southeast from the center of theKaaba. The four corners of the Kaaba roughly point toward the fourcardinal directions of thecompass.[4]
TheRukn al-Yamani (Arabic:الركن اليمني,romanized: ar-Rukn al-Yamani,lit. 'The Yemeni Corner'), also known asRukn-e-Yamani orRukn-e-Yemeni, is the corner of theKaaba facing slightly southwest from the center of the Kaaba.[4][92]
TheRukn ush-Shami (Arabic:الركن الشامي,romanized: ar-Rukn ash-Shami,lit. 'The Levantine Corner'), also known asRukn-e-Shami, is the corner of theKaaba facing very slightly northwest from the center of the Kaaba.[4][92]
TheRukn al-'Iraqi (Arabic:الركن العراقي,romanized: ar-Rukn al-'Iraqi,lit. 'The Iraqi Corner'), is the corner that faces slightly northeast from the center of the Kaaba.
Kiswah, the embroidered covering. Kiswa is a black silk and gold curtain which is replaced annually during the Hajj pilgrimage.[93][94] Two-thirds of the way up is thehizam, a band of gold-embroidered Quranic text, including theShahada, the Islamic declaration of faith. The curtain over the door of the Kaaba is especially ornate and is known as thesitara orburqu'.[95] Thehizam andsitara have inscriptions embroidered in gold and silver wire,[95] including verses from theQuran and supplications toAllah.[96][97]
Marble stripe marking the beginning and end of each circumambulation.[98]
Note: The major (long) axis of the Kaaba has been observed to align with the rising of the starCanopus toward which its southern wall is directed, while its minor axis (its east–west facades) roughly align with the sunrise ofsummer solstice and the sunset ofwinter solstice.[99][100]
TheBāb at-Tawbah, "Door of Repentance"
The Kaaba with the signature minarets. A similar view is printed on the obverse side of 500-riyal (approximately 133USD) notes in Saudi Arabia.
The Station of Ibrahim (Maqam Ibrahim)
TheMīzāb al-Raḥmah
Written marble documents inside the Kaaba
Inside the Kaaba, there were nine engraved marble stones, all written in theThuluth script, except for one which is written in prominentKufic script. In the eastern wall between the door and the Gate of Repentance another document was added by the custodian of the Two Holy Mosques at the timeFahd of Saudi Arabia, regarding his expansion of the mosque, thus bringing the number of documents to ten, all of which are inscribed on white marble.[101]
Islamic sanctities received great attention from theCircassian sultans during the period in which they ruled the Islamic world (784–924AH, 1382–1517CE), with the Kaaba receiving significant attention. Of the ten marble slabs chronicling the architectural contributions of various rulers toAl-Masjid al-Haram, two of the slabs pertain toCircassian sultans.[102]
Sultan Barsbay inscription on the slab in Kaaba
One of these two records the achievements of one of the most notable circassians,Sultan Barsbay. The document, dated to 1423 (CE), attests to a wide reconstruction and restoration process in the mosque by the Sultan.[103]
The inscription on the slab reads:
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم ربنا تقبل منا انك انت السميع العليم تقرب الى الله تعالى بتجديد رخام هذا البيت المعظم المشرف العبد الفقير الى الله تعالى السلطان الملك الاشرف ابو النصر برسباي خادم الحرمين الشريفين بلغه الله اماله و زين بالصالحات اعماله بتاريخ سنة ست و عشرين و ثمان مئه
This translates to:
"In the name of God, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful. Our Lord, accept from us that you are the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing. Draw nearer to God Almighty by renewing the marble of this noble and honorable house. The poor servant of God Almighty, the honorable Sultan King Abu al-Nasr Barsbay, Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. May God reach his hopes and adorn his deeds with good deeds. The year eight hundred and twenty-six AH"
The Circassian Sultan Barsbay
The other of the two circassian slabs is dedicated to Barsbays son,Sultan Qaitbay, known for his great architectural achievements throughout theIslamic world. Dated to 1479 (CE), the document attests to a wide reconstruction and restoration process undertaken by SultanSultan Qaitbay forAl-Masjid Al-Haram.[104]
The inscription reads:
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم ربنا تقبل منا انك انت السميع العليم أمر بتجيد ترخيم داخل البيت مولانا السلطان الأشرف أبو النصر قايتباي خلد الله ملكه يارب العالمين بتاريخ مستهل رجب الفرد عام أربع و ثمانين و ثمانمائة من الهجرة
Which translates to:
"In the name of God, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful. Our Lord, accept from us that You are the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing. He commanded the perfection of melodious chanting inside the house. Our Lord, the honorable and victorious Sultan Qaytbay, may God immortalize his kingdom, Lord of the worlds, on the first of the month of Rajab in the year eight hundred and eighty-four AH."
Pilgrims perform Tawaf around the Kaaba duringUmrah (video)The Kaaba and theMasjid Al-Haram during Hajj, 2008
Ṭawāf (Arabic:طَوَاف,lit. 'going about') is one of the Islamic rituals of pilgrimage and is compulsory during both theHajj and Umrah. Pilgrimsgo around the Kaaba (themost sacred site in Islam) seven times in acounterclockwise direction; the first three at a hurried pace on the outer part of theMataaf and the latter four times closer to the Kaaba at a leisurely pace.[108] The circling is believed to demonstrate the unity of the believers in the worship of theOne God, as they move in harmony together around the Kaaba, while supplicating toGod.[109][110] To be in a state ofWudu (ablution) is mandatory while performing tawaf as it is considered to be a form of worship ('ibadah).
Tawaf begins from the corner of the Kaaba with theBlack Stone. If possible, Muslims are to kiss or touch it, but this is often not possible because of the large crowds. They are also to chant theBasmala andTakbir each time they complete one revolution. Hajj pilgrims are generally advised to "make ṭawāf" at least twice – once as part of the Hajj, and again before leaving Mecca.[111]
The five types of ṭawāf are:
Ṭawāf al-Qudūm (arrival ṭawāf) is performed by those not residing in Mecca once reaching the Holy City.
Ṭawāf aṭ-Ṭaḥīyah (greeting ṭawāf) is performed after enteringal-Masjid al-Haram at any other times and ismustahab.
Ṭawāf al-'Umrah (Umrah ṭawāf) refers to the ṭawāf performed specifically for Umrah.
Ṭawāf al-Wadā' ("farewell ṭawāf") is performed before leaving Mecca.
Ṭawāf az-Zīyārah (ṭawāf of visiting),Ṭawāf al-'Ifāḍah (ṭawāf of compensation) orṬawāf al-Ḥajj (Hajj ṭawāf) is performed after completing the Hajj.
The Tawaf has its origins in the religion of the Najranite pagans, who walked around the Kaaba in an act of devotion to their creator god, Allah (not to be confused with the monotheistic god of Islam by the same name). This practice was adopted by Mohammad after some reform.[112][113][114]
TheQibla is the direction faced during prayer.[115] The direction faced during prayer is the direction of the Kaaba, relative to the person praying. Apart from praying, Muslims generally consider facing the Qibla while reciting theQuran to be a part of good etiquette.
Cleaning
The building is opened biannually for the ceremony of "The Cleaning of the Sacred Kaaba" (Arabic:تنظيف الكعبة المشرفة,romanized: Tanzif al-Ka'bat al-Musharrafah,lit. 'Cleaning of the Sacred Cube'). The ceremony takes place on the 1st ofSha'baan, the eighth month of theIslamic calendar, around thirty days before the start of the month ofRamadan and on the 15th ofMuharram, the first month. The keys to theKaaba are held by theBanī Shaybah (Arabic:بني شيبة) tribe, an honor bestowed upon them by Muhammad.[116] Members of the tribe greet visitors to the inside of the Kaaba on the occasion of the cleaning ceremony.[117]
The Governor of theMakkah Province and accompanying dignitaries clean the interior of the Kaaba using cloths dipped inZamzam water scented withOud perfume. Preparations for the washing start a day before the agreed date, with the mixing of Zamzam water with several luxurious perfumes including Tayef rose, 'oud andmusk. Zamzam water mixed with rose perfume is splashed on the floor and is wiped withpalm leaves. Usually, the entire process is completed in two hours.[118]
^Holland, Tom (2012).In the Shadow of the Sword; Little, Brown; p. 303
^Abdullah Alwi Haji Hassan (1994).Sales and Contracts in Early Islamic Commercial Law. Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University. pp. 3 ff.ISBN978-9694081366.
^Bowersock, Glen. W. (2017).Bowersock, G. W. (2017). The crucible of Islam. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press. pp. 50 ff.
^Caʻfer Efendi (1987).Risāle-i Miʻmāriyye. Brill Archive. p. 49.ISBN90-04-07846-0.
^Timur Kuran (2011). "Commercial Life under Islamic Rule".The Long Divergence : How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East. Princeton University Press. pp. 45–62.
^abcdefKing, G. R. D. (2004). "The Paintings of the Pre-Islamic Kaʿba".Muqarnas.21:219–229.JSTOR1523357.
^abcEllenbogen, Josh; Tugendhaft, Aaron (18 July 2011).Idol Anxiety. Stanford University Press. p. 47.ISBN9780804781817.When Muhammad ordered his men to cleanse theKaaba of the statues and pictures displayed there, he spared the paintings of the Virgin and Child and of Abraham.
^Ibn Ishaq 1955, p. 85 footnote 2: The text reads 'O God, do not be afraid', the second footnote reads 'The feminine form indicates the Ka'ba itself is addressed'
^Christian Julien Robin (2012).Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity. Oxford University Press USA. p. 304–305.ISBN9780195336931.
^Imoti, Eiichi. "The Ka'ba-i Zardušt",Orient, XV (1979), The Society for Near Eastern Studies in Japan, pp. 65–69.
^Crown, Alan David (2001).Samaritan Scribes and Manuscripts'. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. p. 27.
^M. Gaster,The Asatir: The Samaritan Book of the "Secrets of Moses", London (1927), p. 160
^Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies (1986). Goss, V. P.; Bornstein, C. V. (eds.).The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades. Vol. 21. Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University. p. 208.ISBN0918720583.OCLC13159056.
^An alternative version is inPickthall, Muhammad M. (ed.)."The Quran". Retrieved10 January 2018.Lo! the first Sanctuary appointed for mankind was that at Becca, a blessed place, a guidance to the peoples;
^Another version is inShakir, M. H. (ed.)."The Quran". Retrieved10 January 2018.Most surely the first house appointed for men is the one at Bekka, blessed and a guidance for the nations.
^Another version is inPickthall, Muhammad M. (ed.)."The Quran". Retrieved10 January 2018.And (remember) when We prepared for Abraham the place of the (holy) House, saying: Ascribe thou no thing as partner unto Me, and purify My House for those who make the round (thereof) and those who stand and those who bow and make prostration.
^Another version is inShakir, M. H. (ed.)."The Quran". Retrieved10 January 2018.And when We assigned to Ibrahim the place of the House, saying: Do not associate with Me aught, and purify My House for those who make the circuit and stand to pray and bow and prostrate themselves.
^Another version is inPickthall, Muhammad M. (ed.)."The Quran". Retrieved10 January 2018.And when Ibrahim and Ismail were raising the foundations of the House, (Abraham prayed): Our Lord! Accept from us (this duty). Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Hearer, the Knower.
^Another version is inShakir, M. H. (ed.)."The Quran". Retrieved10 January 2018.And when Ibrahim and Ismail raised the foundations of the House: Our Lord! accept from us; surely Thou art the Hearing, the Knowing:
^Morris, Ian D. (2018)."Mecca and Macoraba"(PDF).Al-ʿUṣūr Al-Wusṭā.26:1–60. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 17 November 2018. Retrieved16 November 2018.
^Morris, Ian D. (2018)."Mecca and Macoraba"(PDF).Al-ʿUṣūr Al-Wusṭā.26:1–60, pp. 42–43, n. 200. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 17 November 2018. Retrieved16 November 2018.
^Lapidus, Ira M. (13 October 2014).A history of Islamic societies. Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521514309.OCLC853114008.
^Ibn Ishaq 1955, p. 552: Quraysh had put pictures in the Ka'ba including two of Jesus son of Mary and Mary (on both of whom be peace!). ... The apostle ordered that the pictures should be erased except those of Jesus and Mary.
^Rogerson, Barnaby (2003).The Prophet Muhammad: A Biography. Paulist Press. p. 190.ISBN9781587680298.Muhammad raised his hand to protect an icon of the Virgin and Child and a painting of Abraham, but otherwise his companions cleared the interior of its clutter of votive treasures, cult implements, statuettes and hanging charms.
^abIbn Khaldun, Abd al-Rahman (1967) [1377]. "IV. Countries and cities, and all other forms of sedentary civilization. The conditions occurring there. Primary and secondary considerations in this connection.".Al-Muqaddimah [An Introduction to History]. Bollingen series. Vol. 2. Translated by Rosenthal, Franz (2 ed.). Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press (published 1980). pp. 253–255.ISBN0-691-09797-6.
^According toMuslim tradition:"God made the stone under Ibrahim's feet into something like clay so that his feet sunk into it. That was a miracle. It was transmitted on the authority of Abu Ja'far al-Baqir (maypeace be upon him) that he said: Three stones were sent down fromthe Garden: the Station of Ibrahim,the rock of the children of Israel, and the Black Stone, which God entrusted Ibrahim with as a white stone. It was whiter than paper, but became black from the sins ofthe children of Adam." (The Hajj,F.E. Peters 1996)
^abPorter, Venetia (2012). "Textiles of Mecca and Medina". In Porter, Venetia (ed.).Hajj : journey to the heart of Islam. Cambridge, Mass.: The British Museum. pp. 257–258.ISBN978-0-674-06218-4.OCLC709670348.
^Nassar, Nahla (2013). "Dar al-Kiswa al-Sharifa: Administration and Production". In Porter, Venetia; Saif, Liana (eds.).The Hajj : collected essays. London: The British Museum. pp. 176–178.ISBN978-0-86159-193-0.OCLC857109543.
^Key to numbered parts translated from, accessed 2 December
^Clive L. N. Ruggles (2005).Ancient astronomy: an encyclopedia of cosmologies and myth (Illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO. p. 202.ISBN978-1-85109-477-6.
^Dick Teresi (2003).Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science—from the Babylonians to the Maya (Reprint, illustrated ed.). Simon and Schuster. p. 137.ISBN978-0-7432-4379-7.
