Ajuniper berry is the femaleseed cone produced by the various species ofjunipers. It is not a trueberry but a cone with unusually fleshy and merged scales called agalbulus, which gives it a berry-like appearance. The cones from a handful of species, especiallyJuniperus communis, are used as aspice, particularly inEuropean cuisine, and also givegin its distinctive flavour. Juniper berries are among the only spices derived fromconifers,[1] along withspruce buds.[2]
Unlike the separated and woody scales of a typicalpine cone, those in a juniper berry remain fleshy and merge into a unified covering surrounding theseeds. Juniper berries are sometimes regarded asarils,[3] like the berry-like cones ofyews.Juniperus communis berries vary from 4 millimetres (1⁄8 inch) to12 millimetres (1⁄2 inch) in diameter; other species are mostly similar in size, though some are larger, notablyJ. drupacea (20–28 mm or3⁄4–1+1⁄8 in). The berries are green when young and mature to purple-black over about 18 months in most species, includingJ. communis. Maturation occurs from as little as 8–10 months in some species up to over 24 months inJ. drupacea.[4] The mature, dark berries are usually (but not exclusively) used in cuisine, whilegin is flavoured with fully grown, unripe berries.[1]
Juniper berries contain diversephytochemicals, including anessential oil in about 2% volume, aflavonoid called juniperin,resins (about 10% of volume),proteins, andacetic,malic andformic acids.[5] Fromextracts of the berries,fatty acids,terpenes,aromatic compounds, andhydrocarbons, such aspinene,sabinene,terpinen-4-ol,limonene, andmyrcene, were isolated.[5]
While classified asgenerally recognized as safe in the United States,[6] juniper berries may have variousside effects that have not been tested extensively inclinical trials.[5] Mainly due to an increased risk of miscarriage, even in small doses, consuming juniper berries may affect pregnant or breastfeeding women.[7]
Allergic reactions are possible.[5] Consuming large amounts of juniper berries may causecatharsis,convulsions, or harmkidney function.[5] The berries of some species, such asJ. sabina, are toxic.[8]
The berries of some juniper species are considered too bitter to eat.[citation needed]
In addition toJ. communis andJ. drupacea,[4][9] edible species includeJ. phoenicea,[10]J. deppeana, andJ. californica.[11]
The flavour profile of young, green berries is dominated by pinene; as they mature this piney, resinous backdrop is joined by whatHarold McGee describes as "green-fresh" andcitrus notes.[12] The outer scales of the berries are relatively flavourless, so the berries are almost always at least lightly crushed before being used as a spice. They are used both fresh and dried, but their flavour and odour are at their strongest immediately after harvest and decline during drying and storage.
Juniper berries are used in northern European and particularly Nordic cuisine to, according to one source, "impart a sharp, clear flavor"[1][5] to meat dishes, especially wild birds (includingthrush,blackbird, andwoodcock) andgame meats (includingboar andvenison).[13] They also seasonpork,cabbage, andsauerkraut dishes. Traditional recipes forchoucroute garnie, anAlsatian dish of sauerkraut and meats, universally include juniper berries.[14] Besides Norwegian, Danish, Estonian and Swedish dishes, juniper berries are also sometimes used in German, Austrian, Czech, Polish and Hungarian cuisine, often with roasts (such as Germansauerbraten).Northern Italian cuisine, especially that of theSouth Tyrol, also incorporates juniper berries. They are also used in the Italian region ofApulia, especially to flavour brines.
Juniper, typicallyJ. communis, is used to flavorgin, aliquor developed in the 17th century in theNetherlands.[5] The namegin itself is derived from either theFrenchgenièvre or theDutchjenever, both of which mean "juniper".[1] Other juniper-flavoured beverages include theFinnishrye-and-juniperbeer known assahti, which is flavored with both juniper berries and branches.[15]
Another drink made from the berries is ajulmust, a soft drink made inSweden mainly sold duringChristmas.
A fewNorth American juniper species produce a seed cone with a sweeter, less resinous flavor than those typically used as a spice. For example, one field guide describes the flesh of the berries ofJ. californica as "dry, mealy, and fibrous but sweet and without resin cells".[11] Such species have been used not just as a seasoning but as a nutritive food by someNative Americans.[16] The berries also have medicinal uses. For example, theBlackfoot used juniper berry tea to cure vomiting,[17] whileCrow women drank juniper berry tea after childbirth to increase cleansing and healing.[18] In addition to medicinal and culinary purposes, Native Americans have also used the seeds inside juniper berries as beads forjewellery and decoration.[16]
Anessential oil extracted from juniper berries is used inaromatherapy, both for body massage, diffusion, andperfumery.[10]
Juniper berries, includingJuniperus phoenicea andJ. oxycedrus, have been found inancient Egyptian tombs at multiple sites.J. oxycedrus is not known to grow inEgypt, and neither isJ. excelsa, which was found along withJ. oxycedrus in the tomb ofTutankhamun.[19] The berries imported into Egypt may have come fromGreece; the Greeks record using juniper berries as a medicine long before mentioning their use in food.[20]
The Greeks used the berries in many of their Olympics events because of their belief that the berries increased physical stamina in athletes.[21]
TheRomans used juniper berries as a cheap domestically produced substitute for the expensiveblack pepper andlong pepper imported fromIndia.[10] It was also used as anadulterant, as reported inPliny the Elder'sNatural History: "pepper is adulterated with juniper berries, which have the property, to a marvellous degree, of assuming the pungency of pepper".[22] Pliny also incorrectly asserted that black pepper grew on trees that were "very similar in appearance to our junipers".
The berries were an integral part ofDesert Serrano (Vanyume) culture and grew throughout theMojave River region. The major village ofWá’peat was derived from theSerrano word for juniper berries,wa'at.[23]
There is a lack of clinical research assessing the efficacy and safety of juniper. There is evidence that the berries are abortifacient and since this is believed not to be due to the oil there must be other toxic constituents present. In view of this, use of juniper should not exceed levels specified in food legislation. Juniper is contra-indicated during pregnancy and should not be used during lactation.... There is a lack of clinical safety and toxicity data for juniper and further investigation of these aspects is required.
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